In this, Pavlov admits the difficulty of comparing human beings to animals, because of the sheer complexity of the former. This is particularly so, as mentioned above, in the case of dogs, as they are very simple animals as compared to human beings.
Furthermore, a shortcoming in Pavlov's reasoning relates to the stimulus-response paradigm. Despite admitting to the complexity of the human mind, Pavlov nonetheless assumes the predominance of the stimulus-response factor in both human beings and animals. Hence the assumptions that lead to his comparison between human and animal reactions. In this, he also assumes that human neuroses and pathologies are the result of stimuli and responses rather than the result of deeper issues in the human brain. Indeed, the subconscious is mentioned only briefly, indicating the lack of knowledge in this area at the time. Pavlov also does not acknowledge the human faculty of choice, further indicating the…...

Ivan Pavlov and Classical ConditioningIvan Petrovich Pavlov was a ussian physiologist who became famous for his work in the field of behavioral psychology. In fact, Pavlov has become iconic in popular culture thanks to classic Pavlovs dog experiment. The term Pavlovian has even entered into the lexicon of the West and indicates any time a person has what could be called an automatic, trained response to somethinglike expecting a stimulus at the ringing of a bell. Pavlov helped to explain one of the most basic features of human behavior, which is its programmability. He explored what would be called the associative processes of the canine digestive system and in that study brought attention to the concept of classical conditioning. His work helped to launch the field of behavioral science. It impacted numerous other disciplines too, from psychology to medicine to education. Without Pavlov and his dog, the world might be…...

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ReferencesCambiaghi, M., & Sacchetti, B. (2015). Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849–1936). Journal of Neurology, 262, 1599-1600.Olasky, M. (1985). Bringing “Order out of Chaos”: Edward Bernays and the Salvation of society Through Public Relations. Journalism History, 12(1), 17-21.Pavlov, I. (1904). Physiology of digestion. In Nobel lectures: Physiology or medicine (pp. 141-155). Elsevier.Todes, D. P. (2022). Ivan Pavlov: a Very Short Introduction (Vol. 715). Oxford University Press.

hen a greater variety of representatives were present, the term zemskii sobor or assembly of the land was applied to the
group. This group did not really have any political power as a legislative
body. However, it was a way for Ivan's administration to gather support
amongst a wide range of people.[25]
Ivan felt that he needed the support of the people and of the church
to accomplish his reforms. Consequently, one of his early and important
reforms involved changes in the church. ith Ivan's blessing, the Stoglav
Council made many revisions in church policy ranging from ways of worship
to church court to monastic life to Christianity for the average person.
All of these new policies were documented in a book called Stoglav.[26]
Ivan was a pious person himself and he saw the necessity of bringing the
church on board with the various changes that he intended to make.
Initiating some reasonable changes in the church set a positive tone for
his…...

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Works Cited

Crummey, Robert O. The Formation of Muscovy: 1304-1613. London: Longman,

1991.

De Madariaga, Isabel. Ivan the Terrible: First Tsar of Russia. New Haven:

Yale

University Press, 2005.

Pavlov, Andrei and Maureen Perrie. Ivan the Terrible: Profiles in Power.

London:

Pearson Longman, 2003.

This was different from the Pavlovian theory since the rat's response was not a respondent behavior but an operant behavior.
Skinner does not reject that the subjects learn the behavior. In Skinner's box, rats learn that pressing the bar gets them food. However, this is different from Pavlov's classical conditioning where the dog salivates for food by associating the stimuli (the bell, the sight of food, or the sound of the attendant) with the actual eating. Skinner's operant conditioning occurs because rats are rewarded for pressing the bar. In Skinner's experiment, there is no stimulus associated with the bar in the box. The rat's behavior is spontaneous. By spontaneously pressing the bar and getting the food, however, the rat learns the consequences of it. In this experiment, the consequence is the delivery of food which serves as reinforcement. In Pavlov's theory, the external environment exerts little influence on the reflexive…...

For Pavlov, there was less an emphasis on constant, internal conflict and strife, and an even greater stress than Erikson upon the ability of the environment to shape behavior, and by shaping external behavior shape the psyche. Conflict did not occur within the individual, rather it was imposed upon the individual externally by a stimulus, positive or negative associations were given with that stimulus, and learning and development took place as behaviors continued, even in the absence of the original reward or punishment. This learning could be sexual or asexual in nature, and learning took place throughout an individual's lifetime.
All theorists, albeit to different degrees, addressed the complex interaction of cognitive, physical and emotional development on the overall development of the child.

Freud stressed that a child 'learns' the correct sexual and social identity from the conflicts of early childhood, and the way these conflicts are resolved can produce trauma…...

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Works Cited

David, Doug & Alan Clifton. "Psychosocial Theory: Erikson." Haverford College. Retrieved 5 Aug 2008.  http://www.haverford.edu/psych/ddavis/p109g/erikson.stages.html 

Ivan Pavlov." (1998). PBS.org. Retrieved 5 Aug 2008.  http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/bhpavl.html 

Stevenson, David. "Id, Ego, and Superego." The Freud Web. Retrieved 5 Aug 2008.  http://www.victorianweb.org/science/freud/freud_ov.html

agreed with the conclusions that were come to, whether people learned what and as they were expected to learn, whether there are problems in the study, whether the study could be done in a similar way, the real-world implications of the study and so forth. The article in question focuses on the methods and work of famous scientists Pavlov and Cajal. While some may disagree with the methods and motives of these two heroes of science, their accomplishments are not in question.
There are a few things in the article that are of concern, or at least a casual mention and then some analysis. One example would be Cajal's focus on guiding his disciples including the proper and adequate lines of research. This "guiding" can lead to an installation of bias and ingrained ideas that are not all that scientific. Indeed, there are some modern examples of "scientists" (quotes intended)…...

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References

Rozo, J., & Rodriguez-Moreno, A. (2015). Santiago Ramon y Cajal and Ivan Petrovic Pavlov:

their parallel scientific lives, schools and Nobel prizes. - PubMed - NCBI.

Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 8 October 2015, from  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26082688

The kingdom was left in ruins to Ivan's childless remaining son, Feodor, but soon came under the leadership of Boris Godunov, the brother of Ivan's last rape and one suspected murder.
Perrie and Pavlov single themselves out from the historical mass in their examination of Ivan IV by separating the man from the ruler; outside of a Stalinist examination of the ruler, they found a tyrant whose sadist cruelty was separate from his ability to centralize power and build the first Russian autocracy from which hundreds of years of greatness would follow. Yet, they clearly understand that it would be foolish to separate the pathological personality of Ivan from his reign; it does, in fact, serve to solidify many of his actions and the monstrous attempts at his thirsty control for absolute power. They recognize his epitaph - groznyi - as the source of the ruler whose leadership was awe-inspiring…...

Timeline
Sigmund Freud (1856-1949)

Sigmund Freud is the undisputed father of psychoanalysis. Should this statement seem to contradict assertions regarding the age-old status of psychology, it must be clarified that Freud was the first theorist to formalize the process of analysis, a practice that is not used in all modalities of psychology today. Analysis, specifically the psychoanalysis so often parodied in the cartoon of the tormented patient lying on the couch before the bearded quasi-Freudian father figure of the therapist, presupposes in its theoretical structure the existence of an subconscious element to the human mind, in other words, that how humans think they immediately perceive the world is not all that there is to human consciousness.

Freud used techniques such as free association to elicit reasons for his patient's behaviors. Freud began his treatment upon hysterics. He grew to believe that unresolved childhood traumas rather than physiological causes were at the root for…...

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Works Cited

Pavlov, Ivan. (2003) Lectures and translations. last modified: April 14, 2003. Retrieved on September 19, 2004 at /http://www.ivanpavlov.com

Ross, Kelly R. (2002) Karl Jung. Retrieved on September 19, 2004 at  http://www.friesian.com/jung.htm 

Thorton, Steven P. (2001) "Sigmund Freud." Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved on September 19, 2004 at   his Thoughthttp://www.utm.edu/research/iep/f/freud.htm#Backdropto 

Motivation in Behavior
a) What does Tolman's theory of animal learning tell us about the motivation for human learning?

Unlike John Watson, B.F. Skinner and the other strict behaviorists, or the ussian physiologists like Ivan Pavlov, Edward C. Tolman argued that the behaviorist theory that learning was a matter of stimulus-response (S-) and positive and negative reinforcement was highly simplistic. Although he rejected introspective methods and metaphysics, he increasingly moved away from strict behaviorism into the areas of cognitive psychology. In short, he became a mentalist without actually using that term to describe himself and concluded that all behavior was "purposive" (Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 428). All of his experiments with rats moving through mazes at the University of Berkeley proved to his satisfaction that behavior was actually the dependent variable, with the environment as the independent variable, with mental processes as intervening variables. Tolman summarized this basic theory, which he applied to…...

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REFERENCES

Leaf, J.B. et al. (2010). "Comparison of Simultaneous Prompting and No-No Prompting in Two-Choice Discrimination Learning with Children with Autism." Journal of Applied Behavioral Analysis, No. 2 (Summer 2010), pp. 215-28.

Lerner, R.M. (2002). Concepts and Theories of Human Development, (3rd ed.) Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Lund, S.K. (2009). "Discrete Trial Instruction in Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention" in E.A. Boutot and M. Tincani (eds). Autism Encyclopedia: The Complete Guide to Autism Spectrum Disorders. Prufrock Press, Inc.

Hergenhahn, B.R. (2009). An Introduction to the History of Psychology, (6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth

Additionally, Edward C. Tolman was essentially aiming to understand cognitive processes through the implementation of behavioral methods. Through his experiments using rats, Tolman posited the idea that behavior was not simply a reaction to a particular stimulus (Walker 1984). ather, he believed that the concept of the mind could make actual connections between various stimuli. His concept of latent learning illustrates how the mind can learn without having to express an explicit response to a present stimulus. Instead, the mind learns with less obvious reinforcement that can occur after the removal of the stimulus that triggered the learning in the first place. Essentially, the knowledge gained from latent learning is not always expressed immediately, and rather develops inside the mind through unconscious processes that are drawn upon only when the environment would require them. The mind holds on to these pieces of memory to assist in more overt learning later…...

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References

Kazantzis, Nikolaos, Reinecke, Mark a., & Freeman, Arthur. (2009). Cognitive and Behavioral Theories in Clinical Practice. Guilford Press.

Walker, Stephen. (1984). New Essential Psychology: Learning Theory and Behavior Modification. Methuen Publishing.

The U.S. would be the attractive woman, minimally dressed, as well as the snake which sometime represents male reproductive prowess. The UR would be a general feeling of sexual excitement targeted toward men but could be experienced by either gender. The brand of vodka is the CS while the intended CR is a feeling of sexual excitement when viewing the brand.
Figure 1 - Smirnoff Ad (Crooked Brains, 2012)

3.How could stimulus control be used in the following behavior-modification programs? Be sure to describe the specific procedures that must be implemented in order for the treatment to work.

1. To treat drug abuse

This one is difficult because drug abuse has intrinsic conditioning already associated with it. After a drug user takes a drug, the sense of euphoria often becomes associated with the drug itself. Therefore, when a user simply sees the drug they could experience some euphoria. However, if a the CS…...

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Works Cited

Crooked Brains. (2012, December 29). 20 Creative Smirnoff Advertisments. Retrieved from Crooked Brains:  http://www.crookedbrains.net/2007/12/creative-ads-by-smirnoff.html 

Experiment Resouirces. (N.d.). Classical Conditioning. Retrieved from Experiment Resources:  http://www.experiment-resources.com/classical-conditioning.html 

Prize, N. (2001, May 15). Pavlov's Dog. Retrieved from Nobel Prize:  http://www.nobelprize.org/educational/medicine/pavlov/readmore.html

Canine Behavior: Genetics vs. Environment
The debate over nature vs. nurture as it applies to learning dates back over a hundred years. Certainly, during much of the 20th century, the distinction between learned and inherited behavior appeared much clearer than it does today. The concept that any type of behavior was either learned or merely developed without learning seemed a rationale and straightforward belief. esearch based on these expectations caused some scientists to conclude that rat-killing behavior among cats, for example, is a learned behavior rather than an instinctive one, that human fears are all acquired, or that intelligence is completely the result of experience. Learning theorists were arguing at this point that most behavior is learned and that biological factors are of little or no importance. The behaviorist position that human behavior could be explained entirely in terms of reflexes, stimulus-response associations, and the effects of reinforcers upon them…...

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References

Ader, R., Baum, A., & Weiner, H. (1988). Experimental foundations of behavioral medicines: Conditioning approaches. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Black, A.H., Solomon, R.L., & Whiting, J.W.M. (1954, April). Resistance to temptation as a function of antecedent dependency relationships in puppies. Paper presented at the Eastern Psychological Association meeting, New York. In American Psychologist, 9, 579.

Brush, F.R., Overmier, J.B., & Solomon, R.L. (1985). Affect, conditioning, and cognition: Essays on the determinants of behavior. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Dogs and People: The History and Psychology of a Relationship. (1996). Journal of Business Administration and Policy Analysis, 24-26, 54.

Diversity and Psychology

There were two major developments that influenced the field of psychology and the professions' views regarding multicultural competence, emphasized in 2003. The American Psychological Associations' 2002 Ethical Principles and Code of Conduct and the Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice and Organizational Change for Psychologists published in 2003 both stressed the importance of moving from a mono-cultural school of thought to a multicultural perspective and that these 'new rules' acknowledge an appreciation of differences as well as an "understanding of the inherent ambiguity and complexity in psychological practice (Pack-rown & Williams, 2003; Manesse, Saito, & Rodolfa, 2004). Knapp and VandeCreek (2003) said of these new guidelines that they articulate a need for greater sensitivity regarding linguistic and cultural minorities. The development of the new Code of Ethics and the APA's positioning were purported to be in response to a long awaited recognition of the need for increased…...

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Bibliography

American Psychological Association (2003). Guidelines on multicultural education, training, research, practice, and organizational change for psychologist. American Psychologist, 58(5), 377-402.

Barbour, I. (2000). When science meets religion: Enemies, strangers, partners? San

Francisco: Harper.

Blumenthal, A. (2001). A Wundt primer: The operating characteristics of consciousness.

It may also be appropriate for psychology not to be a science because data for it will always be internal. Psychology is the study of people and what drives people is internal and not observable. If psychologists all took a scientific approach like the behaviorists, science might know a lot about what people do and how they behave. However, scientists would know nothing about why. Finally, it is worth considering that psychology is often studied and applied for the purpose of helping people. In this case, does it matter if a theory cannot be proven if it is effective in helping a person control anger or overcome depression or recover from anorexia? In this way, psychology becomes an applied science where the results and outcomes are important regardless of whether any type of theory can be scientifically proven.
eferences

Appiah, A. (1989). Necessary questions: An introduction to philosophy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:…...

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References

Appiah, A. (1989). Necessary questions: An introduction to philosophy. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Brown, T.L., LeMay, H.E., & Bursten, B.E. (1994). Chemistry: The central science. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Freud, S. (1991). On Metapsychology. New York: Penguin.

Pavlov, I. (1927). Conditioned reflexes. London: Oxford University Press.

Psychology -- Contribution of Psychological Experiments
Philip anyard explains how Stanley Milgram came to be involved with research regarding the Nazi slaughter of millions of people in Europe during World War II. Milgram's obedience study of course had emotional and cultural meaning for him because he is Jewish. In fact he feels blessed that even though his family roots were in Europe in proximity to where the Holocaust took place, he was born in the U.S. And hence avoided the Nazi madness. What is the value of Milgram's research experiments? That is the crux of this section -- the value of Milgram's research into why people are obedient at pivotal moments -- including moments when human lives are at stake.

What does this particular method allow psychologists to study? In the first place, having someone in a room by himself giving shocks to a person he cannot see, a person in another…...

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Bibliography

Banyard, Philip. Just Following Orders? Chapter 2.

Edgar, Helen, and Edgar, Graham. Paying Attention. Chapter 8.

Toates, Frederick. Changing Behaviour. Chapter 4

 Introduction:

The Little Albert Experiment, conducted by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner in 1920, stands as a seminal study in the field of psychology. This experiment sought to investigate the principles of classical conditioning, focusing on the acquisition, generalization, and extinction of conditioned fear responses in a human infant. The Little Albert Experiment has had a profound impact on our understanding of behaviorism and remains a foundational study in the history of psychology.

 The Experiment:

Watson and Rayner meticulously selected an 11-month-old infant, Albert B., for their experiment. They began by introducing Albert to a variety of stimuli, including a white rat,....

1. The Father of Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov

2. Understanding Ivan Pavlovs Contribution to Psychology

3. Ivan Pavlov The Pioneer of Behavioral Psychology

4. Unpacking the Principles of Classical Conditioning....

1. Ivan Pavlov: The Pioneer of Classical Conditioning

2. The Foundation of Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov's Legacy

3. Unlocking the Secrets of Learned Behavior: Ivan Pavlov's Ingenious Experiments

4. Ivan Pavlov and the Experiment That Changed Psychology

5. The Father of Classical....

1. The study of human behavior in psychology has undergone significant evolution over the years, from early foundational theories to modern interdisciplinary approaches. Understanding human behavior has always been a central focus in psychology, as it seeks to unravel the complexities of the human mind and behavior. By exploring the various influences and factors that shape human behavior, psychologists aim to provide insights into human cognition, emotions, motivations, and actions. This essay will delve into the evolution of the study of human behavior in psychology, tracing its historical roots, key theories, and contemporary perspectives.

2. The early beginnings of the....