This is the biggest palace in Istanbul. (Retrieved from http://www.greatistanbul.com/topkapi_palace.htm)
Alhambra Palace - The Alhambra Palace is so named for the Arabic "red castle," due to the surrounding environment. It was created in 1238. (Retrieved from http://www.andalucia.com/cities/granada/alhamhistory.htm)

Masjid-i Shah - Also known as the Mosque of the 72 Martyrs, located in Mashad, Iran. It was built in 1451. (Retrieved from http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.jsp?site_id=10332)

Chehel Sutun - The Chele Sutun (Forty Columns) located in Qazvin, Iran was built for the Shah Tahmasb I from 1524-1576. This served as a mansion for the Persian Safavid dynasty for several centuries. (Retrieved from http://www.oananews.org/content/photo/general/chehel-sotun-palace-northwestern-iran-0)

Shahnama of Shah Tahmasp - The Persian "Book of Kings," with over 50,000 rhymes this book is considered a classic of Persian literature. It was completed in the year 1010 AD. (Retrieved from http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/shnm/hd_shnm.htm)

Court of Gayumars - The court of Gayumars was done from 1525-1535 and depicts the legendary first king of Iran, Gayumars. He…...

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Zal Sighted by the Caravan - This painting is about the hero Rustam. It story shows a bird and a caravan telling Zal to find his father, Rustam. Painted from 1522-1530. (Retrieved from  http://www.asia.si.edu/explore/shahnama/zal.asp )

Taj Mahal Agra - The Taj Mahal is one of the Seven Wonders of the World, and the Taj Mahal was completed in 1632. It is about a man's love for his wife, and is found in India. (Retrieved from  http://www.tajmahal.org.uk/history.html )

City of Fatehpur Sikri - This city was built during the 1550s by the Emperor Akbar in the Mughal Empire. The city includes one of the largest mosques in India, the Jama Masjid. (Retrieved from  http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/255 )

The emphasis on handicrafts also means that Islamic art does not have a focus on the output of individual artists like estern art. Prophetic sayings like "God likes that when you do anything, you do it excellently," have "provided the impetus for Muslims' embellishment and beautification of their places of worship, homes, and even of articles in common use in everyday life. The emphasis in Islamic art is on ornamentation rather than on art for art's sake; while the names of the producers of the finest works of Islamic art may not have survived, their works have become prototypes and models on which other artists and craftsmen patterned their works, or from which they derived the impetus for related work" (Siddiqui 2009).
Islamic art is often characterized by the use of geometric patterns that "create the impression of unending repetition, which is believed by some to be an inducement to…...

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Works Cited

Komaroff, Linda. (2007). Early Islamic art. The Islamic Art Collection. Retrieved March 24, 2009 at  http://www.lacma.org/islamic_art/eia.htm 

Komaroff, Linda. (2007). Introduction. The Islamic Art Collection. Retrieved March 24, 2009 at  http://www.lacma.org/islamic_art/intro.htm 

The nature of Islamic art. (2001, October). In Heilbrunn timeline of art history.

New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000. Retrieved March 24, 2009 at  http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/orna/hd_orna.htm

The result is that the minarets which are more probably rooted in the experiences, technologies and impulses of the now extinct Byzantines are part of the religious iconography of both ancient and modern Islamic culture.
That said, the eventuality by which the Byzantine identity was erased from formal existence would have a significant bearing on the emergence of a yet more self-aware Islamic architectural philosophy. Garber indicates that we may draw a separation -- though it is not entirely clear where to draw this from a chronological perspective -- between the period of transition and the period by which the Islamic leadership had begun to seek out a more pointedly Islamic ideology. In other words, the goals of repurposing eventually began to recede as Muslim architects sought new ways of targeting its proposed functions. Accordingly, Grabar tells that of some of the artifacts left behind from succeeding generations of Umayyad…...

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Works Cited:

Ettinghausen, R.; Grabar, O. & Jenkins-Madina, M. (2003). Islamic Art and Architecture 650-1250. Yale University Press.

Golombek, L. (1988). The Draped Universe of Islam. Colloquium in Memory of Richard Ettinghausen: New York University.

Grabar, O. (1964). Islamic Art and the Byzantium. Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 18, 67-88.

Ismail, O.S.A. (1968). The Founding of a New Capital: Samarra. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 31(1), 1-13.

And aside from the lessons as well, the art behind the calligraphy strived to portray the symbolism in the holy book. The writings were created using various shapes and sizes of the letters and numbers and they led to the formation of pieces of art that combined the teachings of the deity with the comprehension capacity of the humans (Osborn, 2008).
The Arabic calligraphy as such played a dual role -- on the one hand, it preserved the religious values; on the other hand, it, in its essence, represented a form of art and a representation revealing the religion, but also in the same time, being different from the messages it transmitted. In this setting, the calligraphy became sufficiently able to replace imagery in the Islamic arts.

Yet, the complete elimination of imagery from the texts and works of art in the Islamic world was impossible at an exhaustive level. In…...

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References:

Caroll, B.J., Arabic calligraphy and Muslim art, World Religions Professor,   last accessed on February 14, 2012http://www.world-religions-professor.com/arabic-calligraphy.html 

Curtis, E.E., 2010, Encyclopedia of Muslim-American history, Vol. 1, Infobase Publishing, ISBN 0816075751

Hazen, W., 2002, Inside Islam, Lorenz Educational Press, ISBN 0787705268

Mubireek, K., 2000, Arabic calligraphy -- introduction, Islamic Art, last accessed on February 14, 2012http://www.islamicart.com/main/calligraphy/intro.html

Artifact Comparison:
An Islamic Rosary versus an African racelet

One of the challenges of artifact comparison from the perspective of a cultural outsider is to locate the objects in their appropriate context, versus imposing the observer's Western or contemporary ideals upon them. This can be seen when gazing upon the pottery bead rosary necklace from the Asian ethnographic collection in the Museum of Natural History. The artifact was found in Messhad, Iran and is made of multicolored clay, dyed with pigment, and strung together with thread.[footnoteRef:1] From an outsider's perspective it might look like a Christian rosary even though that is not the case upon closer and more educated observation. [1: Pottery bead rosary necklace. Museum of Natural History. Catalog No: 70.2 / 2557. ]

According to the Museum of Natural History's website, artifacts classified as costumes may include artifacts "carried for warmth, protection, embellishment, or for symbolic purposes," of which this is…...

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Bibliography

Bracelet. African Ethnographic Collection. Museum of Natural History. Catalog No: 1 / 4475

"Costume." The Museum of Natural History.   (accessed April 15,https://anthro.amnh.org/africa .

2016)

Pottery bead rosary necklace. Museum of Natural History. Catalog No: 70.2 / 2557

Islamic Art
The two objects that I found on the website required to write this article are entitled Folio from the Tashkent Qu'ran" and "The Feast of Sada," Folio from the Shanama (Book of Kings) of Shah Tahmasp. There are a number of reasons as to why the former of these objects is perceived as part of Islamic art. The most salient of these relates to the title. This work of art is actually a page of written (calligraphic) text from what is regarded as the holy scriptures of Islam, the Koran. This book provides various details about the life and travails of Muhammad, as well as a number of the fundamental precepts of this religion.

In addition to the content of the writing on this particular page, there are a number of faces regarding the actual writing itself that denote that it is Islamic art. Firstly, the page is written in…...

The artworks prevalent during the early Middle Ages in many ways stand between these two extremes. The art of this period was one that was both religiously inclined but also celebrated the human form and human nature that was to become so prominent in the enaissance. In many ways much of early Medieval art was similar to the abstract and decorative art that we find in Islamic examples. An example that has been chosen to represent this early period of European art is the Gerona Bible Master from Bologna, Italy,

Figure 3.

(Source: http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/m/middleages.html)

This decorative example displays intricate artwork that emphasizes and enhances the Biblical context. The text or lyrics on the page refers to hymnal and religious phrases of praise, such as "Let us rejoice" (Art: Middle Ages). Note the way that the decorative images add depth to the aesthetics of the script and the manuscript as a whole.

Another good example…...

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References

Art and architecture of the Early Middle Ages. Retrieved from  http://www.artandpopularculture.com/Middle_Ages 

Art: Middle Ages. Retrieved from http://www.artlex.com/ArtLex/m/middleages.html

Middle Ages. Retrieved from  http://www.answers.com/topic/middle-ages 

Roman art. Retrieved from   Siddiqui E.http://www.artchive.com/artchive/R/roman.html 

Islam Worksheet
REL/134 Version

When studying Islam, it is important to understand the essential elements of the faith, how they are practiced, and the distinctions among the three branches: Shiite Islam, Sunni Islam, and Sufism.

Tawhid -- strict monotheism of God. There is only one, unsurpassable, omniscient God that cannot be visualized or reified in any which manner (although Sunnis do believe that God has some form of body). There are no intermediaries between God and creations. Mohamed might have come the closest to that. Mohammed, God's Prophet, is the closest to perfection that any human can be. Angels are a central part to Islam thought to intercede in all matters of a human's existence. The Quran was divinely revealed to Mohammed, via the archangel Gabriel, and is God's final revelation. Mohammed as one (presumably the most perfect) of God's messengers, all of whom -- human (Shiites believe they are sinless), were chosen…...

All of these examples show that there is no linear narrative of art, rather the construction of even so-called periods between different nations and periods lies in the mind of the beholding academic, not in some universal truth of what is art's history. Critics also have their own abysses, and their own sands of what seems familiar and unfamiliar. Even art periodization is subjective as art, it is not a science, and thus periods should not be taught as absolute standards and markers of art history.
Furthermore, other nations such as China have had different histories and different conceptions of what constitutes making art altogether, as well as different forms of periodization as a result. Western art's periods have been much more dynamic, and more characterized by seismic revolutions in aesthetics, as opposed to other nations. There is more blurring between what art is, and what has a practical religious…...

Islamic Technology
Cultural and Construction History of the Islamic Golden Age

Cultural Environment

The Islamic Golden Age is also known as the Caliphate of Islam or the Islamic Renaissance. The term refers to a system of political, cultural, and religious authority derived from the teachings of the Prophet Mohammed in the early sixth century AD. At its high point under the Abbassid Dynasty (eighth to thirteenth centuries AD), Islamic civilisation experienced a flourish of art and culture that blended Arab, Persian, Egyptian, and European elements (Kraemer). The result was an era of incredible intellectual and cultural advancements (Wiet). At the height of its power, the Caliphate controlled all of the present-day Middle East, all of northern Africa and into Spain, and as far east as the Indus Valley, making it among the largest empires of all time and one of the few states ever to extend direct rule over three continents (Kennedy).

Relationship to…...

Islam
Ibn Khaldun conceptualized history in terms of transformations of social and political power, leading to cultural changes. This was especially true for the expanding Muslim world, of which Ibn Khaldun was a part. During the Middle Islamic periods, scholarship and learning became entrenched throughout the Muslim world and would have a tremendous impact on the evolution of human consciousness and society. Art, architecture, science, medicine, math, and engineering all flourished during the Middle Islamic period. Although these were the primary external features of the Middle Islamic period, also referred to as a golden age, there were underlying political, socio-religious, and economic developments that caused and characterized changes taking place throughout the Mamluk, Mongol, and Timurid periods.

Abbasid rule had a major impact on political, socio-religious, and economic developments. The Abbasid caliphates stressed schools of learning and formal modes of education that were rooted in Islam but which also transcended it by…...

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Work Cited

Egger, V.O. (2007). A History of the Muslim World. Pearson.

Turtle shell rattles have been used for countless centuries. Such rattles have been recovered from ancient sites in the southwest and in the Mississippian civilizations.
The turtle rattle was also a musical instrument in ceremonial use. One of its most important functions was its significance in the False Face ceremonies. One of the most distinguishing features of the Iroquois belief system is the reliance on the mask for religious and ritual purposes. These masks are often designated as False Faces. This term refers to the first False Face and the mythical origins of protective and healing spirits. They are used in introductory and agricultural rituals. The turtle rattles play a significant part in these important rituals.

In the various curing and healing rituals, the wearer of the False Face will juggle hot coals and use ash and is apparently immune to cold (see below), and he bears a turtle-shell rattle to…...

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American Indian Education. (Accessed April 30, 2005)http://www.osseo.k12.mn.us/special/stusupport/stuserv/AmInd/LilBuffalo/catalog.htm

THE IROUK CHARACTER.   / (Accessed May 1, 2005) www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=21005756http://www.icculus.org/~msphil/mythus/campaigns/aerth/irouk 

Frank G. Speck, and Alexander General, Midwinter Rites of the Cayuga Long House (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1995), 70.

In the Qur'an, music is presented as something that can bring pleasure to Muslims. Numerous prominent religious individuals in Islam have apparently claimed that music should not be present in Muslim houses. Even with that, Muslims are aware that Allah cannot possibly prohibit something that does not harm the individual or society in general. It is divisive whether or not Islam allows its followers to enjoy music, considering that the Qur'an can also be interpreted (Neusner, Chilton & Graham, 2002).

Education is not an essential part of Islam, as Muslims are certain that it adds "nothing to the authenticity of the Holy Qur'an in terms of human knowledge" (Ryce-Menuhin, 1994, p. 123). In the present day, Muslims are reluctantly engaging in providing themselves and their children with education, seeing that it is the only way for them to keep up with the advancements performed in society. The need to integrate society…...

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Works cited:

1. Ansari, S. "14 The Migration Factor: Comparing the Experiences of the Muslim and Jewish Communities of South Asia," Jung and the Monotheisms: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, ed. Joel Ryce-Menuhin (New York: Routledge, 1994).

2. Boullata I.J. "Arabic Oral Traditions." Retrieved August 05, 2010, from the Oral Tradition Web site:  http://journal.oraltradition.org/issues/4i-ii/editors_column 

3. Neusner, J. Chilton, B. & Graham, W. Three Faiths, One God: The Formative Faith and Practice of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, 2002).

4. Palm, D. "Oral Tradition in the New Testament." Retrieved August 05, 2010, from the Coming Home Journal Web site:  http://www.chnetwork.org/journals/sola/sola8.htm

Iconography:

In many ways, the iconography left behind at the Dome of the Rock for our evaluation provides only partial insight into the events that inspired it. e are left to interpret this based on the historical knowledge and immediate evidence available to us. According to Rabbat, "Muslims around the world believe it was built to commemorate a decisive event in the Prophet Muhammad's mission, namely his Night Journey from Mecca to Jerusalem, and his subsequent Ascension from the Rock to Heaven, where he received from God the doctrinal principles of the new religion."

It is this interpretation which is largely accepted by the world, marking the rock itself as the most important element of iconography in the structure. The Khirbat al-Mafjar, by contrast, offers a highly provocative mosaic in the main bath hall reserved from the prince-son of the caliph. This is considered the most important artifact left behind from the…...

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Works Cited:

Behrens-Abouseif, Doris. "The Lion-Gazele Mosaic at Khirbat Al-Mafjar." (20

Khoury, Nuha N.N. "The Mihrab: From Text to Form." International Journal of Middle East Studies, 30(1998): 1-27.

Rabbat, Nasser. "The Meaning of the Umayyad Dome of the Rock." (20

Ruggles, D. Fairchild. "The Mirador in Abbasid and Hisapno-Umayyad Garden Typology." (20

Islamic Philosophy
Abul-Waleed Muhammad Ibn Rushd: His Work and Philosophy

Abul-Waleed Muhammad Ibn Rushd (1126-1198 C.E), also known as Averroes, is regarded by many as one of the foremost Islamic philosophers and a pivotal figure in the history of Andalusian philosophy. He is also deemed an important figure in the history of Western philosophy. An important contribution to Islamic culture and philosophy was his defense of Greek philosophy in the Islamic world as well as his emphasis on the philosophy of Aristotle. Ibn Rushd is credited with the introduction of "rationalism" into Islamic philosophy.

A as Etienne Gilson has written in his Reason and Revelation in the Middle Ages, Rationalism was born in Spain in the mind of an Arabian philosopher, as a conscious reaction against the theologism of the Arabian divines, by whom he means the Ash'arite Mutakallimun. (Fakhry)

In global terms it has been asserted that not only did he make an…...

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Bibliography

Allahhakbar. Net. Groundwork on Islamic Philosophy in the context of Modern Western Philosophy. 3 March 2004. www.salaf.indiaaccess.com/atheist/groundwork_on_islamic_philosophy.htm

Fakhry M. Averroes: (Ibn Rushd) His Life, Works and Influence. 4 March, 2004. www.oneworld-publications.com/books/texts/averroes-his-life-woks-and-influence-intro.htm

Hillier C. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 4 March, 2004.  http://www.iep.utm.edu/i/ibnrushd.htm 

IIDL. Abul Walid Muhammed Ibn Ahmed Ibn Rush. 4 March, 2004. http://iidl.net/index.php?ch=15&pg=64&ac=111