Iran-Contra Affair think everyone knew we were walking a very thin line."(Owen) Not many Americans know the truth that lies behind the Iran-Contra scandals. Most would be surprised to know about the deception of our leaders. Still today, some truth of Iran-Contra lies hidden in the conscience of the people who organized, aided, and completed the operations. The entire affair is an example of the difficult task of balancing political interests at home with the world political realities that some countries can only be resisted with military force. The world is ultimately ruled by the aggressive use of force. ithin our nation, we have chosen to limit aggressive force to the political arena, and the use of ideological negotiation in order to facilitate our country's leadership. However, many countries around the world do not respond to negotiation. hile smiling and reaching out to shake right hands at the negotiation table,…...

mla

Works Cited

1986: Iran-Contra Affair." http://www.parida.com/contra.html

Corn, David. "Military Honor?" The Nation. 8 March. 1993.

Draper, Theodore. Very Thin Line. New York: Hill and Wang, 1991.

Flynn, Barry. "Some former hostages dispute North claim on success of Iran-Contra." Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service. 19 Oct. 1994.

Iran-Contra Affair
Historical ackground of the Iran-Contra Affair

Events Surrounding the Decision.

Nicaraguan context. In the 1970s, dissatisfaction with a manipulative and corrupt government was escalating. All socio-economic classes were impacted and by 1978 the situation deteriorated into a short-lived civil war. Through violent opposition, the Marxist Sandinista guerillas achieved power in 1979. y September of 1980, the Sandinistas had suspended elections and taken control of the media. Leftist rebels in El Salvador received aid from Nicaragua and as a result of these ties, during the 1980s, the U.S. sponsored aid to the anti-Sandinista contra guerillas. El Salvador was undergoing a violent civil war at the time, with contention between the leftist rebels who were demanding political and military reform and the government in power.

The United States context referencing Nicaragua. In February of 1979, the U.S. suspended all new military and economic aid to Nicaragua. In 1981, head of the CIA, Casey, established…...

mla

Bibliography

Beer, F.A. And Boynton, G.R. Realistic rhetoric but not realism: A senatorial conversation on Cambodia. In Francis A. Beer and Robert Hariman, Eds., Post-Realism: The Rhetorical Turn in International Relations. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 1999, accessed http://sobek.colorado.edu/~beer/PAPERS/rhetoric.pdf

The authors present a theoretical framework for analyzing the conversations and written records of Senatorial conversation, contrasting the classic rhetoric of foreign relations policy with the more realistic orientation of Senators.

Bogen, David and Michael Lynch. "Taking Account of the Hostile Native: Plausible Deniability and the Production of Conventional History in the Iran-Contra Hearings," Social Problems 36 (3) (Jun., 1989): 197-224.

This article examines a segment of Oliver North's testimony before Joint Congressional committees investigating the Iran-Contra affair during the summer of 1987. It describes discursive methods used by the interrogator as he strives to assimilate the witness's narrative. He also discusses how North is able to resist the transformation of his stories from biography to history. North embeds his narrative into local entitlements that make it difficult to turn into a reconstructed general narrative.

Whereas Poindexter defended the President staunchly, orth did not. orth genuinely believed that his orders were issued by the President, via Poindexter and McFarlane before him ("United States v. Oliver L. orth").
Poindexter testified that he "deliberately withheld the information from President Reagan because 'I wanted the President to have some deniability so that he would be protected,'" ("United States v. John M. Poindexter").

According to the ational Security Archives, Poindexter's testimony served as a diversionary "tactic developed mainly by Attorney General Edwin Meese."

orth's "powerful, can-do persona, his enthusiastic commitment to both operations, and his ruthlessness to make them succeed" elevated him to celebrity villain status ("United States v. Oliver L. orth").

It was later leaked that orth "attracted drug traffickers looking for cover for their operations, then turned a blind eye to repeated reports of drug smuggling related to the contras, and actively worked with known drug smugglers such as Panamanian…...

mla

National Security Archive. "The Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years on." 24 Nov 2006. Available online   Accessed 22 April 2010.http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB210/index.htm .

"United States v. Oliver L. North." Chapter 2. FAS. Available online  

In the years following the Iran-Contra scandal, it seems there were many lessons learned. One, the government, when caught, is adept at covering itself and its own. Authors Lynch and Bogan note, "In the years since then, this conclusion was underlined by the fact that no one was impeached, few criminal convictions occurred, and no significant government reforms were enacted."

In fact, high ranking officials, such as the president and his advisers all managed to steer clear of any major implication in the event. In fact, when the final findings were disclosed in 1994, few people, including the press were interested in what the special prosecutor had to say. Somehow, everyone managed to avoid long prison terms, and the affair has generally been forgotten. Another writer notes, "National polls indicate that many Americans remain confused about the meaning and importance of the Iran/contra affair. Part of this confusion can be attributed…...

mla

References

Hertsgaard, M. (1990, July 2). The media wrap up: Iran/Contra. The Nation, 251, 9+.

Kornbluh, P. (1987). The Iran-Contra scandal: A postmortem. World Policy Journal, 5(1), 129-150.

Lynch, M., & Bogen, D. (1996). The spectacle of history: Speech, text, and memory at the Iran-Contra hearings. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.

Lynch, M., & Bogen, D. (1996). The spectacle of history: Speech, text, and memory at the Iran-Contra hearings. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 21.

Libya and the Iran-Contra Affair:
Recent events of American intervention in Libyan affairs have sparked a debate upon whether or not support should include arms. Support for this measure can be found on both sides of the isle in Washington. The white house seems to be ignoring the issue for the present; however, it has come to light the CIA is on the ground, and some arms are coming from Egypt. History has shown this sort of intervention as counterintuitive to American, as well as humanitarian, interests. Current policy of meddling from afar draws undeniable parallels to the Iran-Contra affair, and the activities of American intervention in the Afghanistan / Soviet conflict. Looking into the failures of policy concerning the past will show how present ambitions of arming the rebels of today as misguided; moreover, dangerous.

During the 1980's America, as seen in the Iran-Contra scandal, became interested in actively providing arms…...

mla

Viewed on April 1, 2011

Moyers, Bill: Brief History of al Qaeda.  http://www.pbs.org/moyers/journal 

Viewed on April 1, 2011

Iran-Contra Presentation
One of the last major events of the Cold War in the Americas was the so-called Iran-Contra affair, which occurred under the presidency of Ronald Reagan. My approach to the Iran-Contra affair is to examine the American domestic ideology and strategy which underlay this late, and complicated, episode in the Cold War.

The basic starting point, however, is to look at the investigation of Iran-Contra from the U.S. Senate. When Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North finally did testify in the Senate hearings in 1987, there was a crucial phrase that was used both by North and by the lawmakers who interrogated him. That phrase was "plausible deniability." And indeed "plausible deniability" is my basic subject here.

What is "plausible deniability"? In short, it is the concept that an American President would be able to order some specific action -- possibly military -- in such a way that the President could later "plausibly…...

mla

But it is also worth noting that the 1970s was a critical period overall in the Cold War. This decade is what is usually referred to as "detente" -- the moment in time when Presidents both Republican and Democrat (Nixon, Ford and Carter) softened their hard-line stance against the Soviet Union, and instead tried to find a policy of peaceful coexistence. Detente led to several arms treaties, normalization of relations with China.

However, Ronald Reagan had always been opposed to detente. And when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979, this made Reagan's hard-line stance more plausible. Reagan took office and reversed the ideological course of the Cold War. As a result, Reagan became personally obsessed with the possible "domino theory" effects of a democratically-elected Communist regime in Nicaragua. Reagan urged support for the insurgent forces in Nicaragua, known as the Contras, despite their rather horrifying record of torturing, raping and murdering civilians. A domestic standoff ensued where Congress refused to offer funding and military assistance to the Nicaraguan Contras, and as a result senior Reagan officials -- including Colonel North -- conspired to raise the funding through secret weapons sales to Iran. When this plot was discovered, the chief question was whether Reagan himself knew of the plot. As a result, ten years after the terminology was first revealed to the public, "plausible deniability" became a subject of public conversation in America again.

The primary sources for my investigation are mostly public documents. I examined statements made in the hearings of the Church Committee in the 1970s when "plausible

Iran-Contra Affair. Specifically, it will discuss what the Iran-Contra Affairs were, how they developed, how they were discovered, the Congressional hearings, and the aftermath of the affairs. The Iran-Contra Affair was really a series of covert operations initiated by the Reagan administration and carried out first by the CIA and then the NSC. These affairs were investigated by Congressional committees after they became public, and were as detrimental to the government as the Watergate affair, because they subverted the Congress and the Constitution.
THE IRAN-CONTRA AFFAIR

In reality, there was more than one Iran-Contra Affair, but the entire turn of events has become known as simply the "Iran-Contra Affair." In fact, the scandal surrounding the arms deal to Iran, and to the Central American contras were many different undercover operations, led by a variety of members of the National Security Staff. The first event to take place in the affairs was…...

mla

Bibliography

Draper, Theodore. A Very Thin Line: The Iran-Contra Affairs. New York: Hill and Wang, 1991.

Editors. "Iran-Contra Affair." The Columbia Encyclopedia. 6th ed. 2000.

Kornbluh, Peter, and Malcolm Byrne. "Iran-Contra: a Postmortem." NACLA Report on the Americas XXVII.3 (1993): 29-34.

Lynch, Michael, and David Bogen. The Spectacle of History: Speech, Text, and Memory at the Iran-Contra Hearings. Durham: Duke University Press, 1996.

Iran-Contra Outline
Oliver North, Ronald Reagan, and "Plausible Deniability."

This paper will attempt to contextualize Oliver North and the Iran-Contra Affair within a larger discussion of Cold War strategy.

The introduction will present the paper as having basic sections. The first will discuss the idea of "plausible deniability" -- invoked by North during his 1987 testimony -- and show how it fit into Cold War strategy in the 1950s. The second section will discuss Reagan's own Cold War strategy, and his reversal of the 1970s policy of detente -- this will also necessarily entail Reagan's interest in supporting the Nicaraguan Contras, and Reagan's first-term standoff with Congress over funding the Contras (leading to the passage of the Boland Amendment for three consecutive years, 1982-1984). The third section will show how North revived the notion of "plausible deniability" after it had been disavowed in the 1970s, and will demonstrate that this was consistent…...

mla

3B. Congressional opposition. Focuses on Congress' opposition to Reagan's support for the Contras, the passage of the Boland Amendment(s), and the general context whereby Oliver North would implement the "plausible deniability" strategy that enabled Iran-Contra.

PART 3. Oliver North and Iran-Contra. This ties together the previous two sections of the paper, by explaining North's actions in terms of a pre-1969 Cold War mentality and policy that had been revived by Reagan.

3A.

Proxy WarfareProxy war s an armed conflct between two actors or states, fghtng on the behalf of other partes who are not drectly engaged n the armed conflct. Proxes are typcally supported by the other partes va fundng, armng, tranng, or some other form of assstance. Ncaragua s a key legal case that hghlghts the problems that can arse from proxy warfare. As Heckman (2017) ponts out: In Ncaragua, the Court found that the Unted States was gulty of tranng, armng, equppng, fnancng and supplyng the contra forces. It further found that the actons of the Unted States n and aganst Ncaragua created an nternatonal armed conflct (IAC) between Ncaragua and the Unted States.[footnoteRef:2] However, the Court also found that a non-nternatonal armed conflct (NIAC) was gong on n the state of Ncaragua at the same tme. Dnsten has also ponted out how ncongruous such a rulng can be wth…...

mla

in the middle east. Espace Géographique et Société Marocaine, 1(53).Rawabet Center. (2017). Retrieved from   P. (2021). Neighbors and Rivals: Iran and Great Power Diplomacy. In The Geopolitics of Iran (pp. 17-59). Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore.https://rawabetcenter.com/en/?p=1550 Roberts,

Dissertation ManuscriptBySedric K. MorganGeopolitical Awareness and Understanding of the Current Monetary Policies: A Quantitative Study Northcentral University, 2019 Comment by Author: Sedric NOTE: take a look at the Turnitin Analysis report. Consider the areas that are closely related to student paper(s) from University of Maryland. I highly suspect this is a matter of improper paraphrasing (by you as well as these other student(s)). The areas are sourced and the similarity may be more likely from the direct source.Geopolitical Awareness and Understanding of the Current Monetary Policies: A Quantitative StudyDissertation ManuscriptSubmitted to Northcentral UniversitySchool of Business Administrationin Partial Fulfillment of theequirements for the Degree ofDOCTO OF BUSINESS ADMINISTATIONbySEDIC KAL MOGANSan Diego, California Comment by Author: location of the university has changed since the 2018 DP/DM template. Please update the location to La Jolla, California for the Dissertation Proposal final. Thanks, Sharon.September2020Abstract Comment by Author: Meets A checklist. The abstract contains…...

mla

ReferencesAdrian, T., & Shin, H. S. (2010). Liquidity and leverage. Journal of financial intermediation, 19(3), 418-437.   6-0. (2012). Mission command. Headquarters, Department of the Army.Ainger, J. (2019). The unstoppable surge in negative yields reaches $17 trillion. https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/negative-yield-bonds/ Aljzeera. (2020 May, 5). Venezuela\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\'s Maduro: Americans captured in failed coup plot.  https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/05/venezuela-americans-nabbed-failed-coup-plot-200505025057889.html Allison, G. (2017). Destined for war: Can America and China escape Thucydides\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\'s trap? Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.Alonso-Trabanco, J. (2019). Geopolitics and the Asian infrastructure investment bank – analysis.  https://www.eurasiareview.com/06072019-geopolitics-and-the-asian-infrastructure-investment-bank-analysis/ Anand, P. (1995). Foundations of Rational Choice Under Risk. OUP Catalogue, Oxford University Press, number 9780198774426.Ashton, P. (2009). An appetite for yield: The anatomy of the subprime mortgage crisis. Environment and Planning A, 41(6), 1420-1441. https://doi.org/10.1068/a40328Armas A., Castillo P.,& Vega M. (2014). Inflation targeting and quantitative tightening: effects of reserve requirements in Peru. Economia, 15(1), 133-175. https//doi.org/10.2307/24368352Balaawi, M. M. (2017 September, 26). Belt and Road Initiative (BRI):The China One Belt, One Road Project. Seminar held on Tuesday 26 September 2017 at the Academy. http://ira.academy/en/seminar-china-one-belt-one-road-project/Bartash, J. (2018). Here’s who owns a record $21.21 trillion of U.S. debt. MarketWatch [online]. https://www.marketwatch.com/story/heres-who-owns-a-record-2121-trillion-of-us-debt-2018-08-21Bauman, K. E., Fisher, L. A., Bryan, E. S., & Chenoweth, R. L. (1984). Antecedents, subjective expected utility, and behavior: A panel study of adolescent cigarette smoking.Addictive behaviors, 9(2), 121-136.  https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-4603(84)90050-9 BBC. (2019). US economy under Trump: Is it the greatest in history? Retrieved from  https://www.bbc.com/news/world-45827430 Belke, A. H., Gros, D., &Osowski, T. (2016). Did quantitative easing affect interest rates outside the US? New evidence based on interest rate differentials. New Evidence Based on Interest Rate Differentials (January 26, 2016). CEPS Working Document, (416).  http://aei.pitt.edu/71011/1/WD416_Did_QE_affect_interest_rates_0.pdf Bennett, W. L., &Segerberg, A. (2011). Digital media and the personalization of collective action: Social technology and the organization of protests against the global economic crisis. Information, Communication & Society, 14(6), 770-799. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2011.579141Bernstein, J. (2019). A tight job market is a potent force against inequality and wage stagnation. https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2019/02/01/tight-job-market-is-potent-force-against-inequality-wage-stagnation/?utm_term=.0a531cf24efbBlackwill, R. D. (2019). Trump’s foreign policies are better than they seem. Council Special Report No. 84.  https://www.cfr.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/CSR%2084_Blackwill_Trump.pdf Bouvatier, V., &Delatte, A. L. (2015). Waves of international banking integration: A tale of regional differences. European Economic Review, 80, 354-373.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2015.10.004 Boxwell, R. (2018). How China’s rampant intellectual property theft, long overlooked by US, sparked trade war.  https://www.scmp.com/magazines/post-magazine/long-reads/article/2170132/how-chinas-rampant-intellectual-property-theft Brown, B. (2019). Inflation and the Boom-Bust Cycle in Corporate Leverage.Atlantic Economic Journal,47(1), 25-34.  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11293-019-09604-x Bruno, V., & Shin, H. S. (2015). Capital flows and the risk-taking channel of monetary policy. Journal of Monetary Economics, 71, 119-132.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmoneco.2014.11.011 Buchanan, E. (2019). What Russia wants in a multipolar world. The Interpreter, Lowy Institute.  https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/what-russia-wants-multipolar-world Buskins, V. (2015). Rational choice theory in sociology. International Encyclopedia of the Social &Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition), 901-906.  https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-097086-8.32177-8 Buyl, T., Boone, C., & Wade, J. B. (2019). CEO narcissism, risk-taking, and resilience: An empirical analysis in US commercial banks.Journal of Management, 45(4), 1372-1400. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206317699521Cai, K. G. (2018). The one belt one road and the Asian infrastructure investment bank: Beijing’s new strategy of geoeconomics and geopolitics.Journal of Contemporary China, 27(114), 831-847. https://doi.org/10.1080/10670564.2018.1488101Cavanna, T. P. (2019). Unlocking the gates of Eurasia: China\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\'s Belt and Road Initiative and its implications for US Grand Strategy. Texas National Security Review.  https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/handle/2152/75825/TNSRVol2Iss3_Cavanna.pdf?sequence=2 Chang, C., Duke, J., Hsieh, S. (2011). A loophole in financial accounting: A detailed analysis of repo 105. Journal of Applied Business Research, 27(5), 30-45.  https://doi.org/10.19030/jabr.v27i5.5590 Charoenwong, B., Morck, R., &Wiwattanakantang, Y. (2019). Bank of japan equity purchases: The final frontier in extreme quantitative easing. Working Paper 25525. http://www.nber.org/papers/w25525Cho, Y, & Kumon, T. (2019 January, 7). China, Russia and EU edge away from petrodollar Rise of US unilateralism raises concern about relying on greenback for oil trade. Nikkei Asian Review.  https://asia.nikkei.com/Economy/China-Russia-and-EU-edge-away-from-petrodollar Cohen J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. New York (NY): Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesClarke, H. D., Rapkin, J., & Stewart, M. C. (1994). A president out of work: a note on thepolitical economy of presidential approval in the Bush years.British Journal of Political Science, 24(4), 535-548. https://www.jstor.org/stable/194033Colander, D., Goldberg, M., Haas, A., Juselius, K., Kirman, A., Lux, T., & Sloth, B. (2009). The financial crisis and the systemic failure of the economics profession.Critical Review,21(2-3), 249-267. https://doi.org/10.1080/08913810902934109Cornish, D., & Clarke, R. (1987). Understanding crime displacement: An application ofrational choice theory. Criminology, 25(4), 933–947. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1987.tb00826.xCosentino, B. W. (2020). Loving Yourself. How to raise your self-esteem.  https://www.wkhs.com/health-resources/health-library/article?chunkid=14266&lang=English&db=hlt Council on Foreign Relations – CFR (2018). Geostrategic and Military Drivers and Implications of the Belt and Road Initiative.  https://www.cfr.org/report/geostrategic-and-military-drivers-and-implications-belt-and-road-initiative  Cox, J. (2019). Private payroll growth tops estimates as job market shows signs of tightening.  https://www.cnbc.com/2019/07/31/private-payrolls-up-156k-in-july-vs-150k-est-adpmoodys.html D\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\'Haeseleer, B. (2019). Paving the way for Baghdad: The US invasion of Panama, 1989. The International History Review, 41(6), 1194-1215. https://doi.org/10.1080/07075332.2018.1480512de la Sablonnière, R. (2017). Toward a psychology of social change: A typology of social change. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article 397.  https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00397 Dimon, J. (2017). Letter to shareholders.  https://reports.jpmorganchase.com/investor-relations/2017/ar-ceo-letters.htm Dijink, G. (2002). National identity and geopolitical visions: Maps of pride and pain. Routledge.Domm, P. (2019). Falling interest rates are sending a warning signal to the stock market. https://www.cnbc.com/2019/05/28/falling-interest-rates-are-sending-a-warning-signal-to-the-stock-market.html Dorsey, J. M. (2019). Trump’s trade wars: A New World Order? Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies. http://www.jstor.com/stable/resrep24339Durden, T. (2019). Bill Dudley Shocker: Ex-NY Fed President urges Fed\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\'s Powell to prevent Trump re-election.  https://www.zerohedge.com/news/2019-08-27/bill-dudley-shocker-ex-ny-fed-president-urges-feds-powell-prevent-trump-re-election Gaither, B. M., Austin, L., & Schulz, M. (2018). Delineating CSR and social change: Querying corporations as actors for social good. Public Relations Inquiry,7(1), 45–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/2046147X17743544Gaman-Golutvina, O. (2018). Political Elites in the USA under George W. Bush and Barack Obama: Structure and International Politics. Historical Social Research, 43(4), 141-163.  https://doi.org/10.12759/hsr.43.2018.4.141-163 Giles C. (2017). Central bankers face a crisis of confidence as models fail.https://www.ft.com/content/333b3406-acd5-lle7-beba-552lc713abf4Glasser, K. (2019). War games: Trump, Bolton, and the alleged march to fight Iran. https://www.newyorker.com/news/letter-from-trumps-washington/war-games-trump-bolton-and-the-alleged-march-to-fight-iran Goodman, M. P. (2016). The evolving institutional landscape. In Cohen, C., & Dalton, M. (Eds.). Global Flashpoints 2016: Crisis and Opportunity. Center for Strategic and International Studies (pp. 95-97). Rowman & Littlefield.Greenfield, H. (2010). The decline of the best: An insider’s lessons from Lehman Brothers. Leader to Leader, 55, 30-36. https://doi.org/10.1002/ltl.399Haitsma, R., Unalmis, D., & de Haan, J. (2016). The impact of the ECB\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\'s conventional and unconventional monetary policies on stock markets. Journal of Macroeconomics, 48, 101-116.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmacro.2016.02.004 Hanson, T. (2013). Failure of command at Pea Ridge, 1862. In D. Wright (Ed.),16 Cases of Mission Command. Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: Combat Studies Institute Press.Harris, R. (2013). Warning signs prior to the financial crisis of 2008: A comparative analysis. Journal of Management & Engineering, 6(1), 88-97. ProQuest (No. 65b1a0c954b5472b27a04b73feb5f12c).Harris, M., &Raviv, A. (1990). Capital structure and the informational role of debt. TheJournal of Finance, 45(2), 321-349. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6261.1990.tb03693.xHarwood, J. (2019). 5 Reasons why income inequality has become a major political issue.  https://www.cnbc.com/2019/06/05/5-reasons-income-inequality-has-become-a-major-political-issue.html Hasan, M. (2020 May, 9). The “coup” attempt in Venezuela seems ridiculous. But don’t forget — regime change is the U.S. goal. The Intercept.  https://theintercept.com/2020/05/09/venezuela-coup-regime-change/ Hass, R., & Denmark, A. (2020 August, 7). More pain than gain: How the US-China trade war hurt America. Order from Chaos.  https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/08/07/more-pain-than-gain-how-the-us-china-trade-war-hurt-america/ Heller, R. (2017). Monetary mischief and the debt trap. Cato Journal, 37(2), 247-261.  https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/catoj37&div=28&id=&page= Hickman, G. R. (2010). Leading change in multiple contexts: concepts and practices in organizational, community, political, social, and global change settings. Los Angeles: SAGE.  http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452274706.n8 Ho, J., & Cheng, W. (2016). Metaphors in financial analysis reports: How are emotions expressed? English for Specific Purposes, 43, 37-48.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esp.2016.04.001 Ho, P. H., Huang, C. W., Lin, C. Y., & Yen, J. F. (2016). CEO overconfidence and financial crisis: Evidence from bank lending and leverage. Journal of Financial Economics,120(1), 194-209.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfineco.2015.04.007 Huang, K., & Shang, C. (2019). Leverage, debt maturity, and social capital. Journal of Corporate Finance, 54, 26-46.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcorpfin.2018.11.001 Huston, J. H., & Spencer, R. W. (2018). Quantitative easing and asset bubbles. Applied Economics Letters, 25(6), 369-374. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2017.1324604International Institute for Green Finance (2020) Countries of the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Central University for Finance and Economics, Beijing.  https://green-bri.org/countries-of-the-belt-and-road-initiative-bri?cookie-state-change=1599239854912 Japan Times. (2018). China to allow victims of IP theft to sue for damages.  https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2018/12/24/asia-pacific/china-allow-victims-ip-theft-sue-damages/ Kanagaretnam, K., Lobo, G. J., Wang, C., & Whalen, D. J. (2015). Religiosity and risk-taking in international banking. Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Finance, 7, 42-59.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbef.2015.07.004 Knott, S. (2019). George H. W. Bush: Foreign Affairs. Miller Center.  https://millercenter.org/president/bush/foreign-affairs Knutsen, T. L. (2020). A history of international relations theory. Manchester University Press.Krishna, A. (2020). The perils of US hegemony, the petrodollar and the role India could play in the emergence of the New World Order. OpinIndia.  https://www.opindia.com/2020/04/perils-us-hegemony-petrodollar-role-of-india-new-world-order/ Lee, J. P., Lin, E. M., Lin, J. J., & Zhao, Y. (2019). Bank systemic risk and CEO overconfidence. The North American Journal of Economics and Finance, 100946  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.najef.2019.03.011 Lewis, E. F., Hardy, M., & Snaith, B. (2013). Estimating the effect of nonresponse bias in a survey of hospital organizations. Evaluation & the Health Professions, 36(3), 330-351. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163278713496565Lima, L., Vasconcelos, C. F., Simão, J., & de Mendonça, H. F. (2016). The quantitative easing effect on the stock market of the USA, the UK and Japan. Journal of Economic Studies, 43(6), 006-1021. https://doi.org/10.1108/JES-05-2015-00811 Little, W., Vyain, S., Scaramuzzo, G., Cody-Rydzewski, S., Griffiths, H., Strayer, E., &Keirns, N. (2014). Introduction to Sociology-1st Canadian edition. Victoria, BC: BC campus. Retrieved from https://opentextbc. ca/introductiontosociology.Loomes, G., &Sugden, R. (1982). Regret theory: An alternative theory of rational choice under uncertainty. The Economic Journal, 92(368), 805-824. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2232669Lukyanov, F. (2016). Putin\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\'s foreign policy: The quest to restore Russia\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\'s rightful place. Foreign Affairs, 95(3), 30-37. https://www.jstor.org/stable/43946855Lupton, J. (2018). 10 Years after the financial crisis.  https://www.jpmorgan.com/global/research/10-years-after-crisis Maslow, A. H. (1958). A dynamic theory of human motivation. In C. L. Stacey & M. DeMartino (Eds.), Understanding human motivation (p. 26–47). Howard Allen Publishers.  https://doi.org/10.1037/11305-004 Mauldin, J. (2018). The next recession might be worse than the Great Depression.  https://www.forbes.com/sites/johnmauldin/2018/03/20/the-next-recession-might-be-worse-than-the-great-depression/#6df9e2469b97 McDonald, R., & Paulson, A. (2015). AIG in Hindsight.Journal of Economic Perspectives,29(2), 81-106. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.29.2.81McLaughlin, J. (2019). As concerns grow about faltering U.S. support for UAE, China steps in to fill the void.  https://news.yahoo.com/as-concerns-grow-about-faltering-us-support-for-uae-china-steps-in-to-fill-the-void-211701915.html McLean, B. & Nocera, J. (2011). All the devils are here: The hidden history of the financial crisis. New York, NY: Penguin.Miquel, G. P. I., Qian, N., Xu, Y., & Yao, Y. (2015). Making democracy work: Culture, social capital and elections in China. Social Capital and Elections in China. NBER Working Paper, (w21058).Nilakantan, N. (2010). Marketing of derivatives in the aftermath of Lehman Crisis. Synergy, 8(2), 43-53. ProQuest (No. f175af678d213d532219ba1aa177b453).Ordonez, G. (20l8). Confidence banking and strategic default. Journal of Monetary Economics, 100, 101-113.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmoneco.2018.07.010 O\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\'Reilly, B., &Dugard, M. (2016). Killing the rising sun: How America vanquished World War II Japan. Pan Macmillan.Pikulina, E., Renneboog, L., & Tobler, P. N. (2017). Overconfidence and investment: An experimental approach. Journal of Corporate Finance, 43, 175-192.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcorpfin.2017.01.002 Rajan, R., & Winton, A. (1995). Covenants and collateral as incentives to monitor. The Journal of Finance, 50(4), 1113-1146. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6261.1995.tb04052.xReuters. (2018). Regulated banks soften stance on leveraged lending guidance. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-lev-regulation/regulated-banks-soften-stance-on-leveraged-lending-guidance-idUSKBN1HQ2XVRoach, S. S. (2009, February). A wake-up call for the US and China: stress testing a symbiotic relationship. InTestimony before the US-China Economic and Security Review Commission of the US Congress, Hearing on “China’s Role in the Origins and Response to the Global Recession.  https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/2.17.09Roach.pdf Rooney, K. (2019). Share buybacks soar to record $806 billion — bigger than a Facebook or Exxon Mobil.  https://www.cnbc.com/2019/03/25/share-buybacks-soar-to-a-record-topping-800-billion-bigger-than-a-facebook-or-exxon-mobil.html#targetText=Share%20repurchases%20have%20hit%20records,to%20a%20record%20%24223%20billion .Rumer, E., & Sokolsky, R. (2019). Thirty years of U.S. policy toward Russia: Can the vicious circle be broken? Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.  https://carnegieendowment.org/2019/06/20/thirty-years-of-u.s.-policy-toward-russia-can-vicious-circle-be-broken-pub-79323 Salhin, A., Sherif, M., & Jones, E. (2016). Managerial sentiment, consumer confidence and sector returns. International Review of Financial Analysis, 47, 24-38.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.irfa.2016.06.009 Schweller, R. (2018). Three Cheers for Trump\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\'s Foreign Policy: What the Establishment Misses. Foreign Affairs, 97, 133. http://cf.linnbenton.edu/artcom/social_science/clarkd/upload/Three%20Cheers%20for%20Trump\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\'s%20Foreign%20Policy.pdfSEC. (2010). Litigation Release No. 21489 / April 16, 2010. https://www.sec.gov/litigation/litreleases/2010/lr21489.htmSen, A. K. (1977). Rational fools: A critique of the behavioral foundations of economic theory. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 317-344.  https://philpapers.org/rec/SENRFA Seth, S. (2020 April, 14). Why China buys U.S. debt with treasury bonds. Investopedia.  https://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/040115/reasons-why-china-buys-us-treasury-bonds.asp Shambaugh, D. L. (2013). China goes global: The partial power(Vol. 111). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Simon, H. A. (1972). Theories of bounded rationality. Decision and organization, 1(1), 161-176.  http://innovbfa.viabloga.com/files/Herbert_Simon___theories_of_bounded_rationality___1972.pdf Smith, K. (2019). How this trade war will remake the world.  https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2019-05-23/u-s-china-trade-war-will-remake-the-world Stent, A. (2020 April, 27). Why are US-Russia relations so challenging? Brookings: Policy 2020.  https://www.brookings.edu/policy2020/votervital/why-are-us-russia-relations-so-challenging/ Stephan, U., Patterson, M., Kelly, C., & Mair, J. (2016). Organizations driving positive social change: A review and an integrative framework of change processes. Journal of Management, 42(5), 1250-1281. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206316633268Tracy, E. F., Shvarts, E., Simonov, E., &Babenko, M. (2017). China’s new Eurasian ambitions: The environmental risks of the Silk Road Economic Belt. Eurasian Geography and Economics, 58(1), 56-88. https://doi.org/10.1080/15387216.2017.1295876Van Lerven, F. (2016). Quantitative easing in the Eurozone: A one-year assessment. Inter-economics, 51(4), 237-242.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10272-016-0608-9 Van der Putten, F., Rood, J., &Meijnders, M. (2016). Great powers and global stability. Clingendael Monitor 2016.  https://www.clingendael.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/clingendael_monitor2016-great_powers_and_global_stability-eng_0.pdf Walliman, N. (2017). Research methods: The basics. Routledge.Woolcock, M. (2001). The place of social capital in understanding social and economic outcomes. Canadian Journal of Policy Research, 2(1), 11-17. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Michael_Woolcock2/publication/269576288_The_Place_of_Social_Capital_in_Understanding_Social_and_Economic_Outcome/links/57c77f6c08ae28c01d4f84ee.pdfWong, D., &Koty, A. K. (2020 August, 25). The US-China Trade War: A Timeline.  https://www.china-briefing.com/news/the-us-china-trade-war-a-timeline/ Yom, S (2020). US foreign policy in the Middle East: The logic of hegemonic retreat. Global Policy, 11(1), 75-83. https://doi.org/10.1111/1758-5899.12777Appendix A: Scatterplot of Dependent Variable - ConfidenceAppendix B: Scatterplot: Dependent Variable - ConfidenceAppendix C: Survey InstrumentQ1. You are confident that your industry can handle another economic crisis.1 Not confident at all2 A little worried3 No opinion4 Somewhat confident5 Very confidentQ2. You are geopolitically aware of what goes on in the world and that awareness impacts how you think; meaning at any given time you can describe relations between various states, how US foreign policy or sanctions impacts both the global economy and the local economies of states, and the extent to which tensions are rising or falling between various nations; and doing so impacts your views.1 Not geopolitically aware at all2 Unsure, i.e., hear some things but don’t know what it means3 Neither aware nor unaware, i.e., can process information and talk about it if the subject comes up but do not think about it much4 Somewhat aware; I do make decisions every once in a while based on what I understand5 Very aware; all of my decisions are based on this awarenessQ3. You are aware of rising debt levels and central bank monetary policy and the role both play in the global economy.1 Not aware at all2 Unsure, i.e., hear some things but don’t know what it means3 Neither aware nor unaware, i.e., can process information put out by the Federal Reserve or by bank analysts/CEOs and talk about it if the subject comes up but do not think about it much4 Somewhat aware; I do make decisions every once in a while based on what I understand on these relationships5 Very aware; all of my decisions are based on this awarenesshttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfi.2008.12.002 ADRP

It was a poor policy at best, and the President's Cabinet approved the plan, even if he did not. In fact, Congress specifically denied the request to send money to the Contras, so it was done in secret, and this violated the law and the trust of the nation. It was dishonest, it was covert, and it cast a dark cloud over the presidency and eagan's own motives.
In comparison, oosevelt has his own legacy of poor judgement, too. oosevelt tried to pack the Supreme Court by proposing to add new justices, and many believe he pointed the country toward socialism.

oosevelt felt the Supreme Court was too conservative when they overthrew many of the social changes he had created in the New Deal. He felt they were not following the Constitution in their decisions, but were following their own feelings. He wanted to bring the number of Supreme Court justices…...

mla

References

Felzenberg, Alvin S. "There You Go Again:" Liberal Historians and the 'New York Times' Deny Ronald Reagan His Due." Policy Review, no. 82 (1997): 51+.

McKenna, Marian C. Franklin Roosevelt and the Great Constitutional War: The Court-Packing Crisis of 1937. New York: Fordham University Press, 2002.

Reagan, Ronald. 2008. Inaugural Address. [Online] available from the Internet at   3 May 2008.http://www.americanpresidents.org/inaugural/39a.aspaccessed 

Siracusa, Joseph M., and David G. Coleman. Depression to Cold War: A History of America from Herbert Hoover to Ronald Reagan. Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002.

Zionism is even being identified with Christianity, with evangelicals uniting themselves to Israeli interests. Need we remind ourselves that Zionism is a politico-religious belief that is diametrically opposed to Christian values? The post-war propaganda that followed II even helped obliterate the notion of Jesus Christ as Holocaust and replace it with the Shoah, the Jewish holocaust. At the heart of Zionism is the eradication of Christian culture and the elevation of Zionist policies like the one currently being enacted on the Gaza Strip. Israel is an apartheid state and has been murdering Palestinians for years -- and now it has convinced millions of Christians and evangelicals that they must destroy the Arab before he destroys them. hat kind of value is this? It is a diabolical one.
Refusing to embrace diplomacy also undermines our prosperity. Rather than attacking and occupying countries in the Middle East, we should be working with…...

mla

Works Cited

Anders, Chris. "Senators Demand the Military Lock Up of American Citizens." ACLU.

23 Nov 2011. Web. 13 Feb 2012.

Buchanan, Patrick. "Why Are We Baiting the Bear?" 23 Aug 2011.

Corbett, James. "9/11: A Conspiracy Theory." Corbett Report. 11 Sep 2011. Web. 13

The situation in El Salvador was also a parable of what was happening all over the region. Central America seemed to be covered in revolt in 1981, when the massacre occurred. Along with the revolution in El Salvador, there was an armed conflict going on in Guatemala that was bringing terror and bloodshed to the country, and the Sandinistas had just taken over control in Nicaragua. In the midst of the Cold War, America supported the Central American regimes that fought Communism, no matter how corrupt and dictatorial they became, because Communism was the "real" evil that threatened the world. As such, they supported regimes that committed unspeakable crimes, such as the massacre at El Mozote, while keeping the true nature of their support from the American people. The Nicaraguan situation (Iran-Contra affair) with Oliver North supporting the rebel Contras against the Sandinistas by selling weapons to Iran is probably…...

mla

References

Danner, Mark. The Massacre at El Mozote: A Parable of the Cold War. New York: Vintage, 1994.

Media in America as the Fourth Estate: From Watergate to the Present
During the 1970's, the role of the media changed from simply reporting the news to revealing serious political scandals (Waisbord, 2001). The media's role during Watergate was viewed as the mirror that reflected the most that journalism could offer to democracy: holding powers accountable for their actions. This became a trend in the American media and journalism had high credibility in the years that followed, and a great increase in journalism school enrollment followed.

However, during the 1980's and 1990's, this trend withered away. Investigative journalism is no longer rampant the firmament of American news. While the tone of the press was self-congratulatory in the post-Watergate years, the state of American journalism is currently viewed in a less positive light.

For the elite, the shift in journalism is welcomed. For example, according to John Dean, an American journalist, President ush…...

mla

Bibliography

Altbach, Philip. (1995). International book publishing, and Encyclopedia. Fitzroy Dearborn.

Bagdikian, Ben. (1993). The Media Monopoly. Beacon Press.

Barton, C. Franklin, Jay B. (1994). The First Amendment and the Fourth Estate: the Law of Mass Media,6th ed. Foundation Press.

Coronel, Sheila. (July 31, 2000). Investigative Reporting: The Role of the Media in Uncovering Corruption. Southeast Asian Press Alliance.

A Critique of Democracy: the Latin American Left Introduction
The Latin American Left was mainly inspired by the idealism of Marx. Marx (1873) believed that “the ideal is nothing else than the material world reflected by the human mind and translated into forms of thought.” For the Left, the main problem has always been rooted in class—as materialism is the basis of their worldview, class and class struggle was the biggest issue, and equality and egalitarian principles enacted and served in society were the goal. Marx wanted the workers to own the means of production and thus end the rule of the bourgeoisie over the laborers. This was his ideal—and the Latin American leaders on the Left made it their priority to nationalize private industry and for the state to take control of the means of production. Whether it was Evo Morales in Bolivia, Chavez and Maduro in Venezuela, Castro in Cuba…...