A while in the past half century the United States has made significant overall progress toward the objective of ensuring equal treatment under the law for all citizens, in the critical area of criminal justice, racial inequality appears to be growing, not receding, and our criminal laws, while facially neutral, are enforced in a manner that is massively and pervasively biased.

Dunnaville)

The above report and others also states that there were,"...serious findings of systematic unequal treatment of African-American and Hispanic-Americans and other minorities, as compared to their similarly situated white counterparts within the criminal justice system "(Dunnaville).

Another aspect that should be taken into consideration and which has an impact on the understanding of causative factors in terms of race, are findings that the biases and anomalies in the legal system seem to begin at the very early stages of the legal process. This means that the possible prejudice that leads to…...

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Bibliography

Generation at Risk. Nov. 11, 2007.  http://www.rainbows.org/statistics.html 

CAULKINS J. And REUTER P. Reorienting U.S. Drug Policy. Nov. 11, 2007.  http://www.issues.org/23.1/caulkins.html 

Chesney-Lind, M. And S.K. Okamoto. "Gender Matters: patterns in Girl's

Delinquency and Gender Responsive Programming." Journal of Forensic

Incarceration Alternatives Pros and Cons
In some ways, there are nearly as many different pros and cons to incarceration alternatives as there are varieties of such pros and cons. As a social institution, incarceration has a definite function in helping to keep those who would harm other members of society from doing so. However, that same social institution can overlook or miss several other functions that are needed in society for those who have transgressed its legal boundaries. Some people commit legal transgressions because they have other needs (such as mental or chemical dependency related) that are not being met. Moreover, when incarcerated, those needs still are not met, and such people may simply revolve from states of incarceration to temporary terms of freedom. Despite the fact that there are varying advantages and disadvantages to alternatives to incarceration, they generally can be viewed from a streamlined perspective in which those pros…...

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References

Beha, James. "Testing the Functions and Effect of the Parole Halfway House: One Case Study. The Journal of Criminal Law. 1976. Web.

Bhati, Avinash, Piquero, Alex. "Estimating the Impact of Incarceration on Subsequent Offending Trajectories: Deterrent, Criminogenic, or Null Effect? Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. 98(1), 207-256

David, Ruth. (2006). Ten Alternatives to Prison. www.forbes.com 2006. Web. Pros and cons on the subject alternatives to incarceration.

Race and Incarceration
Prison

The American Penal System has gone through various changes but the most profound changes have been studied in relation the race inequality. Going to jail has become the norm for most of the African-American men. This inequality through incarceration is visible not only in men but in women also. There was a 78% increase in the criminal justice control rates for black women. It was studied that between 1980 and 1992, there was a 276% increase in the female prison population. This is compared to the 163% increase for black men in prison. (Davis 268) These figures give a rough estimate of how the prison population has changed and how the majority of the inmates are either Latinos or African-American. These high incarceration rates have therefore made researchers taste that prison time is normal part of the adulthood of a black man in a poor urban neighborhood. (Irwin…...

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Works cited

Davis, Angela Y . "Race and Criminalization." The House That Race Built: Original Essays by Toni Morrison, Angela Y. Davis, Cornel West, and Others on Bl ack Americans and Politics in America Today. By Lubiano, Wahneema. 1st ed. New York: Vintage Books, 1998. 265-279. Print.

Irwin, John and James Austin. It's about time. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Pub. Co., 1994. Print.

Langan, Patrik. "Racism on Trial: New Evidence to Explain the Racial Composition of Prison in the United States." Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 76. (1985): 666-683. Print.

Petit, Becky and Bruce Western. "Mass Imprisonment and the Life Course: Race and Class Inequality in U.S. Incarceration." American Sociological Review, 69. April (2004): 151-169. Print.

African-American Incarceration
African-American Race and the Criminal Justice System: The Effect on Black Communities

Racial Disparities and Incarceration

Recent studies have shown that race is a factor in the criminal justice system. For example, a study analyzing statewide sentencing outcomes in Pennsylvania for 1989-1992, found that, net of controls: (1) young black males are sentenced more harshly than any other group, (2) race is most influential in the sentencing of younger rather than older males (Steffensmeier, et al., 1998). The relationship between African-American males and the criminal justice system has been described as being no less than a crisis. In recent years policy attention regarding the crisis of the African-American male has focused on a variety of areas in which African-American males have suffered disproportionately from social ills. These have included education, housing, employment, and health care, among others. Perhaps in no other area, though, have these problems been displayed as prominently as…...

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Works Cited

Mauer, Mark (1999) The Crisis of the Young African-American Male and the Criminal Justice System." Prepared for U.S. Commission on Civil Rights

April 15-16, 1999 Washington, D.C.

Pettit, Becky & Bruce Western (2004) "Mass Imprisonment and the Life Course: Race and Class Inequality in U.S. Incarceration." American Sociological Review 69: 151.

Roberts, Dorothy E. (2004) "The Social and Moral Cost of Mass Incarceration in African-American Communities" Stanford Law Review, Vol. 56, No. 5, 2004 Stanford Law Review Symposium: Punishment and Its Purposes (Apr., 2004), pp. 1271-1305.

psychological effects of incarceration on inmates are very profound. The effects can be grouped into two main categories. The first category relates to the effects that the inmates experience while they are still in prison. The second categories of effects are the ones that are post-incarceration related. The psychological effect of incarceration is a problem that should be addressed with utmost urgency and due care since the inmates are also part of our society and they deserve normal health care and treatment as all the other persons in the society. The process of inmate reintegration is therefore jeopardized by the unstable mental condition of the inmates after they leave prison. It is therefore important to formulate the best framework to address the state of inmate mental health both pre-incarceration and post-incarceration.
It is important that the process of inmate reintegration is not jeopardized by poor mental state resulting from both…...

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Bibliography

Cadora, Eric .Criminal Justice and Health and Human Services: An Exploration of Overlapping Needs, Resources, and Interests in Brooklyn Neighborhoods.Open Society Institute

Finney-Hairston, Creasie Prisoners and Families:Parenting Issues During Incarceration.. Chicago: Jane Addams College of Social Work, University of Illinios

Gaes, Gerald and Kendig, Newton.The Skill Sets and Health Care Needs of Released Offenders.

Haney, Craig.The Psychological Impact of Incarceration: Implications for Post-Prison Adjustment. Santa Cruz:University of California (2001)

ace and Crime: The Incarceration of Black Men
Contemporary news outlets are frequently packed with reports of crimes and illegal activities involving Black men. In fact, the number of Black men who are prosecuted and convicted of crimes has steadily increased over the past three decades, causing a deepening concern about the racial divide that continues to grow in the American legal and penal systems. It's clear that more Black men go to prison than men of other races, and it's also clear that they serve longer prison sentences (Ekholm, 2006). This paper will investigate the causes of this phenomena and the impact it is having on both the Black community and our society as a whole. Through an investigation of the outcomes for black criminals and a comparison to other racial groups in the United States the writer aims to outline the impact that incarceration rates are having on the…...

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References

Akpadock, F. (2003). "The Social and Economic Impacts on The African-American Community of Incarcerated Black Males Between the Ages of 18 and 35, From 1996-2000." Center for Urban and Regional Studies. Youngstown, Ohio. Accessed 12, March 2011. http://cfweb.cc.ysu.edu/psi/pdf%20files/publications/curs.cr.r.302.fa.1.03.pdf

Eckholm, E. (2006). "Plight Deepens for Black Men, Studies Warn." The New York Times. 20 March. 2006. New York. Accessed 12, March 2011.  http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/20/national/20blackmen.html?_r=1 

Mauer, M. (1999) The Crisis of the Young African-American Male and the Criminal Justice System." The Sentencing Project. U.S. Comission on Civil Rights. Washington, DC. Accessed 12, March 2011.  http://www.sentencingproject.org/doc/publications/rd_crisisoftheyoung.pdf 

Holzer, H., Offner, P.,Sorensen, E. (2004). "Declining Employment among Young Black Less-Educated Men: The Role of Incarceration and Child Support." National Poverty Center Working Paper Series #04-5. Accessed 12, March 2011.  http://www.npc.umich.edu/publications/workingpaper04/paper5/04-05.pdf

Parental Incarceration on Children in the elfare System
In 1998, there was an estimated 200,000 children in the United States that had an imprisoned mother and more than 1.6 million with an imprisoned father (Seymour 1998). However, no one knows for certain how many children in the U.S. have an incarcerated parent (Seymour 1998). The Center for Children of Incarcerated Parents uses a formula for calculating these numbers by multiplying the number of currently incarcerated women by.75, the average number of incarcerated women with children, by 2.4, the average number of children per incarcerated mother; then multiply.56, the average percentage of incarcerated men with children, by 2.0, the average number of children per incarcerated father, and add the two sums together (Seymour 1998).

ith the incarcerated population in the United States growing by an average of 6.5% each year, the number of children with parents in prison will only continue to…...

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Works Cited

Seymour, Cynthia. "Children with Parents in Prison: Child Welfare Policy,

Program and Practice Issues." Child Welfare Journal of Policy, Practice and Program, Special Issue: Children with Parents in Prison. September/October 1998.

Children of Incarceration Parents Project: Report to the Oregon Legislature.

December 2002. http://www.doc.state.or.us/transition_project/welcome.shtml.

acial Disparities in Incarceration
There is an abundance of salient information related to prisons and the correctional system in the United States dispensed throughout Mauer's article, "Addressing racial disparities in incarceration." The article was published in 2011, which makes it still relevant and informative for contemporary society. As the title of this work of literature suggests, it widely discusses various aspects of the prison system pertaining to racial disparities. Despite this title, it is noteworthy that the bulk of the author's research is concentrated on those disparities as related to Caucasians, African-Americans and Latinos, with little more than a note about other races including Asians and Native Americans (both of which the author claims there is a paucity of relevant data for) (Mauer, 2011, p. 88S). Additionally, it is important to realize that the racial disparity in various facets of incarceration reflects a relative scarcity of Caucasians and an abundance…...

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References

Mauer, M. (2011). Addressing racial disparities in incarceration. The Prison Journal Supplement to 91(3), 87S-101S.

Consequences of Incarceration on an Increasingly Homogenized Labor Market
It strongly appears that there is a direct correlation between incarceration and its effects on the labor market. A review of articles pertaining to this subject suggests that this relationship is largely causal in nature. The reality of the situation is that there are increasing rates of incarceration (Travis and estern 233) in the United States in the 21st century. Thus, it is accurate to state that the effects of incarceration on the labor market are increasing as well, and resonate throughout it both in terms of the lot of the individuals who have experienced incarceration, and on the labor market in general.

The most eminent effect of incarceration on the labor market involves the fact that there is marked difficulty obtaining employment for those who have endured incarceration. There are several factors contributing to this reality. Many employers conduct background checks…...

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Works Cited

Pager, Devah. "The Mark of a Criminal Record." AJS. 108(5), 937-975.

Travis, Jeremy. Western, Bruce. "The Growth of Incarceration in the United States: Exploring Causes and Consequences." The National Academy Press. 2014. Web.  http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=18613

incarceration of minorities, most prominently black males and its effect on communities with black males. It begins with making a bold statement. "The number of people incarcerated in the United States has grown seven times over the past 40 years, and this growth has been concentrated among black men with little education" (Goffman, 2009, p. 339). Goffman makes a direct correlation with lack of education and incarceration for black males. He notes that those with a high school diploma are 30% more likely to be incarcerated with odd jumping to 60% if they did not finish high school. The statistics also highlight black children and the fact that 25% of black children born in 1990 have fathers in prison.
Some news stories and articles throughout the years, especially the recent Black Lives Matter movement, have shown the rise in incarceration and targeted arrests of black men by law enforcement. This…...

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References

Goffman, A. (2009). On the Run: Wanted Men in a Philadelphia Ghetto. American Sociological Review, 74(3), pp.339-357.

Sentencing in the US versus in Germany and the Netherlands
There is one major difference between the sentencing and corrections policies of the US and the sentencing and corrections policies of Germany and the Netherlands. The former bases its policy on the ideas of retribution and incapacitation, whereas the latter base their policies on the ideas of rehabilitation and socialization (Vera Institute of Justice, 2013). This basic philosophical orientation towards the corrections is what distinguishes the two policies. The US views corrections as a punitive measure while Germany and the Netherlands view corrections in a positive light -- a measure that is designed to return the inmate to society. Indeed, recidivism rate in the US is 40% -- meaning that 4 out of every 10 inmates released will return to prison within the first three years (Vera Institute of Justice, 2013). In Germany and the Netherlands, such a rate is unheard…...

ealizing that jails and prisons cost state and federal governments millions of dollars each year, should that be a consideration in the length of sentences given? For your assignment, write a one-page (-300 words) paper with your reflection as it relates to the costs vs the necessity to incarcerate.Incarceration cost tax payers many millions of dollars each year. In many instances, these dollars appear to be wasted as many inmates are ill-equipped to matriculate back into society once they are released. What ensues in a cycle recidivism in which criminals often repeat the crimes that caused them to be in prison. This ultimately results in a constant cycle of prison for many inmates. Unfortunately, the actual length of the sentence does not have a strong correlation to the overall costs. It reality, it is the behavior of the inmates that contributes heavily to prison costs. In the United States nearly…...

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References 1. Andrews, D.A. (2006). Enhancing adherence to risk-need-responsivity: Making quality a matter of policy. Criminology and Public Policy, 5, 595-602.2. Billy L. Wayson; and Gail S. Funke, What Price Justice? A Handbook for the Analysis of Criminal Justice Costs (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, 1989, NCJ 106777).

Incarceration on Prisoners Families
There can be little doubt that incarceration will impact on families as well as the prisoner. ith more than 1 million women and 6 million men within the correctional system in the U.S. (Clarke and Adashi 923), indicating an exponentially large number of family members being impacted. The family members most impacted are the immediate family; partners, and children, as well as parents, as well as impacting on the wider communities (Braman 5). This paper reviews the problems faced by prisoners' families, focusing on partners and children of those incarcerated.

The impact on partners can be far reaching, especially for partners who met their partners prior to any incarceration. The impacts will be tangible and psychological. Firstly, the incarceration of a partner may create financial hardships, this may be due to loss of income, especially where the prisoner was a major wage earner. hen it is remembered…...

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Works Cited

Braman, D. Doing Time on the Outside. Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 2007. Print.

Clarke, J G, and E. Y Adashi. "Perinatal Care for Incarcerated Patients." JAMA, The Journal of the American Medical Association 305.9 (2011): 923 -- 929. Print.

Comfort, M. Doing Time Together: Love and Family in the Shadow of the Prison. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2009. Print.

Hairston,. "Prisoners and Families: Parenting Issues During Incarceration." "From Prison to Home" Conference. N.p., 2002. Web. .

Successful achievement of program requirements will often lead to a dropping or reduction of the charges while failure may bring back or enhance the penalties that are involved. Charges dismissed because of a diversion program will still lead to additional criminal history points under the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines if there was a finding of guilt by a court or the defendant pleaded guilty or otherwise admitted guilt in open court, provided that the deferred disposition was not a juvenile matter (Diversion Programs: An Overview, 1999).
Conclusion

Alternative to Incarceration Programs (ATIs) are part of the mix of factors that have allowed the City to reduce crime, reduce jail and prison populations, and help individuals and neighborhoods across the City. As an alternative to sentencing someone to jail or prison, ATIs permit a judge to sentence someone to a program where they obtain treatment, education and employment training in the community, all…...

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References

Alternative to Incarceration Programs: Cut Crime, Cut Costs, Help People and Communities. (n.d.). Retrieved May 15, 2010, from Web site:

http://www.cases.org/Papers/ATIs.htm

Electronic Monitoring of Offenders in the Community. (n.d.). Retrieved May 15, 2010, from Michigan Department of Corrections Web site:

  -- ,00.htmlhttp://www.michigan.gov/corrections/0,1607,7-119-1435-5032 

Alternatives to Prison
Over the last 30 years, the prison population in the United States has increased exponentially. For instance, California's prison population has increase eightfold, from 20,000 prisoners in the early 1970's to more that 160,000 in the early 2000's. (Haney) In Texas, from just 1992 to 1997 the prison population doubled, adding an additional 70,000 prisoners. (Haney) Because of the massive overpopulation in America's prisons, there have been advances in alternatives which allow for sentences other than incarceration.

Since many of those incarcerated in prisons are there for non-violent offenses, there are some who advocate that non-violent criminals be allowed alternatives to prison. The benefits of such alternatives are that they give courts more options, they save taxpayers money, strengthen families and communities, reduce crime, and are supported by the public. ("Alternatives to Incarceration Fact Sheet.")

One type of alternative to prison is what is referred to as "boot camps." According…...

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References

"Alternatives to Incarceration Fact Sheet." Families Against Mandatory Minimums (FAMM). Retrieved from  http://www.famm.org/Repository/Files/Alternatives%20in%20a%20Nutshell% 

207.30.09%5B1%5DFINAL.PDF

Blaum, Paul. (1996) "Correctional boot camps are effective." Public Information. Retrieved from  http://www.psu.edu/ur/archives/intercom_1996/June20/CURRENT/ research1.html

Haney, Craig. "Prison Overcrowding: Harmful Consequences and Dysfunctional Reactions." Prison Commission Testimony. Retrieved from  http://www.prisoncommission.org/statements/haney_craig.pdf

One of the more shameful moments in American history was the establishment of internment camps for Japanese-Americans during World War II.  Ostensibly started because the United States was at war with Japan, it is interesting to note that there were no similar internment camps for people of Italian or German descent, despite the fact that Italy and Germany were also part of the Axis powers that fought against the Allies in World War II. 

Prior to World War II, Japanese began immigrating to America for work opportunities.  They initially immigrated to Hawaii, which was annexed by the United....

This is a very interesting topic.  Near the end of each year, Lux Research posts a list of transformational technologies to watch in the following year, which might be a good place to start if you are looking for ideas about a specific technology.  However, those are going to be technologies that are already invented.  Inventing a technology that would transform society in a specific country would require an intimate understanding and knowledge of a country’s culture, geography, religion, history, infrastructure, and natural resources; identifying a problem that it has; and combing up with a novel invention....

We are starting with the assumption that the two movies in your assignment are A Twist of Faith and Never Heard.  We cannot locate a movie called Never Hear, but Never Heard is a popular movie for pastoral or theological classes because it explores the role that faith plays in redemption set against the backdrop of some pretty significant criminal activity.  We are proceeding as if that is the movie being discussed.

Both of the movies focus on crimes, specifically on the crime of murder.  In one movie, the main character is accused of murder, though he claims....

Capital punishment remains one of the most controversial topics in criminal law.  The ethics of the death penalty are complicated.  Many people believe that the death penalty is simply unethical under any circumstances, while others argue that the death penalty is not only ethical, but that it is unethical not to execute certain killers.  The law provides guidance about when it can be applied, but laws vary from country-to-country and, within the United States, there is even tremendous variation in state laws about the death penalty.  Therefore, any essay about the death penalty is expected....