Human Genome Project
One of the primary concerns of the biological sciences today is human health. The more information is made known about the human body, the more curative and preventive steps can be taken to ensure the longevity and health of the human body. This is one of the ends of the Human Genome Project (HGP), which was concluded in 2003. The project ran for 13 years and was coordinated by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health.
US Department of Energy (2012). In addition, the Wellcome Trust in the U.K. became amajor partner in this effort, while contributions were also received from Japan, France, Germany, China, and other countries. The HGP's main goals were to gather information and apply the findings to human health. It should, however, also be noted that the project has several ethical and social implications.
Several main goals were identified for the Human…...
mlaReferences
Carroll, M.L. And Ciaffa, J. (2007) The Human Genome Project: A Scientific and Ethical Overview. American Institute of Biological Sciences. Retrieved from: http://www.actionbioscience.org/genomic/carroll_ciaffa.html
Green, E. (n.d.) Human Genome Project: Implications for Healthcare. Journal of Managed Care Medicine. Vol. 9, No. 2 Retrieved from: http://www.namcp.com/Journals/JMCM/Articles/Human%20Genome%20Project-Implications%20for%20Healthcare.pdf
US Department of Energy. (2012). Human Genome project. Retrieved from:
uman Genome Project (GP) was designed to provided detailed and complete information about the genes in human DNA. Not funded by any private corporation, the GP will generate information that can be used by a wide variety of agencies and companies in the 21st century and beyond (Guyer & Collins, 1995). With this information, scientists can greatly improve how they perform human research, and the medical implications may have few limits.
When completed, scientists and researchers will have a map of human the 50,000-100,000 genes contained in human DNA. In addition, since some research with genetic implications for humans is done with other organisms, those organisms will also be mapped (McDaniel, 2005). The GP currently stands as the single most dramatic sphere of biological research, and holds the power to change studies in biology and psychology as well as medicine. Currently in its final stage, parts of the human DNA sequences…...
mlaHowever, as our knowledge of genetics has become more sophisticated, we now know that some genes only provide a tendency or increased chance of developing some diseases (Collins et. al., 1998). In both the cases of clear-cut genetic causation, such as with Huntington's Chorea, and in cases where genetics may play a role, such as in some types of breast cancer, medical professionals as well as patients have to make some difficult decisions (Collins et. al., 1998). Would most people want to know if they were destined to develop Huntington's Chorea, or would they rather not know? Does an individual want to know that he or she carries a gene that can lead to breast cancer even though this knowledge, by itself, cannot predict whether the person will get the disease or not? (Collins et. al., 1998)
Other questions involve the right of individuals to privacy. Once we have human DNA completely mapped, will we then begin to generate detailed genetic profiles of all medical patients? If we do, is this information that can be shared with other organizations, by, for instance, hospitals? If it can be shared, insurance companies might then drop people with genes that make them prone to certain kinds of cancer, or destined to develop some genetically-driven disease such as Huntington's. In those cases, the individuals would get glimpses into their medical future whether they wanted to know what their genes reveal or not.
Advances in genomic science raise innumerable psychosocial questions. The issues underlying the story of the Genetic Revolution are fundamental, even philosophical What is the essence of being human? How much will we try to control the gender, the temperament, and the genetic heritage of our children? How much can we improve on the human condition? Are disabilities to be avoided or embraced? Who has
Since the antigens are closely linked to race and ethnicity, it is much easier to find a biological match among people with similar ethnic and racial backgrounds than it is among any two randomly selected individuals. On the basis of tissue matching, organs from blacks will almost always go to blacks and organs from whites will almost always go to whites. Blacks, however, have a much higher incidence of kidney failure than whites. But since whites significantly outnumber blacks in the American population, there are still large numbers of whites waiting for organs. There are so many, in fact, that nearly every white donor is matched to a white recipient. Blacks and other minorities must rely on a much smaller pool of kidneys. The situation for potential black kidney transplant recipients is made even worse by the fact that blacks have a lower rate of cadaver organ donation than…...
mlaWorks Cited
Andrew, Lori. "Public Choices and Private Choices: Legal Regulation of Genetic Testing."
Justice and the Human Genome Project. Ed. Timothy Murphy and Marc Lappe. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1994, 46-75.
Caplan, Arthur. "Handle with Care: Race, Class, and Genetics." Justice and the Human Genome Project. Ed. Timothy Murphy and Marc Lappe. Los Angeles:
University of California Press, 1994, 30-46.
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The ethical concerns about the ability to obtain this information revolve around the possibility of discrimination against people who have less than superior gene pools and that those people will be shunned from society, or worse yet, rounded up and locked up before they have ever done anything wrong.
In addition there is also the concern that the wealthy will be able to genetically order perfect children with the highest IQ's the healthiest DNA and the best looks, while those who are not wealthy will have children the old fashioned way and there will be an eventual class distinction between the children who have been genetically ordered and those who are a toss of the dice.
The other ethical issue involves a perceived right to privacy. The recent health care privacy act has worked to further protect a person's right to decide who has information about him and why it will be…...
mlaReferences
Bailey, Ronald (2001) Does Genetic Engineering Endanger Human Freedom?
The American Enterprise
Brave, Ralph (2001) Governing the Genome: WHICH GENETIC MODIFICATIONS SHOULD BE ENCOURAGED AND WHICH OUTLAWED? DEEP DIVISIONS EXIST EVEN AMONG ETHICAL SCIENTISTS AND INFORMED ACTIVISTS.
The Nation
MEDICAL NUSING Medical Nursing: Human Genome ProjectWhat Is Human Genome Project (HGP)The Human Genome Project is an international venture based on research with the major goal of completing the chemical sequence of human genetic material (Collins & Fink, 1995). It would enable 50,000 to 100,000 genes to be completed within the genome, for which research tools and an international approach are required. This project aims to gain information on the genetic formation of human cells so that new strategies for treating and preventing diseases can be formulated for each unique human being. The powerful formula for understanding the pathology of illnesses is possible with a comprehensive interpretation of DNA (Collins & Fink, 1995). Multiple DNA mutations would help cater to the interpretation of complex physical and psychological disorders, along with inheritable ones, so that single to multiple gene mutations define the building blocks of the human body and its functionalities.Concept…...
mlaReferencesClari, M., Luciani, M., Conti, A., Sciannameo, V., Berchialla, P., di Giulio, P., Campagna, S. & Dimonte, V. (2021). The impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on nursing care: A cross-sectional survey-based study. Journal of Personalized Medicine, 11(10). F. S., & Fink, L. (1995). The Human Genome Project. Alcohol Health and Research World, 19(3), 190–195.Ogunrinola, G.A., Oyewale, J.O., Oshamika, O.O. & Olasehinde, G.I. (2020). The human microbiome and its impact on health. International Journal of Microbiology, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8045646 Widiasih, R., Emaliyawati, e., Ermiati, Hendrawati, S., Susanti, R.D., Sutini, T., & Sari, C.W.M. (2021). Nurses’ actions to protect their families from Covid-19: A descriptive qualitative study. Global Qualitative Nursing Research, 8. https://doi.org/10.1177/23333936211014851Yamamoto, S., Saito, M., Tamura, A., Prawisuda, D., Mizutani, T. & Yotsyanagi, H. (2021). The human microbiome and Covid-10: A systematic review. Plos One, 16(6). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253293https://doi.org/10.3390/jpm11100945 Collins,
IV. TESTING ON HUMANS
The only thing that is lacking at this point according to all reports is for testing on humans to be completed. The Time Asia articles states: "The last step for the ace-2 inhibitor, as for any drug, is human clinical trials. ecause the U.S. Food and Drug Administration requires such rigorous testing, this is by far the most expensive part of drug development. So for human trials in some cases, Millennium has formed partnerships with large pharmaceutical companies that have the necessary resources and will share in any eventual profits." (2001)
SUMMARY & CONCLUSION
According to the work entitled: "rave New Pharmacy" published in Time Asia (2001) "When the human genome was sequenced...scientists finally gained access to the full text of God's reference manual; the 3 billion biochemical 'letters' that spell out our tens of thousands of genes. These genes, strung out along the 46 chromosomes in virtually every…...
mlaBibliography
Drug Design in the Fast Lane: Speeding Drug Design (nd)
Elmer-Dewitt, Phillip (2001) The Future of Drugs. Time Asia 22 January 2001 Vol. 57, No. 3 Online available at http://www.time.com/time/asia/magazine/2001/0122/cover1.html .
Lemonick, Michael, D. (2001) Brave New Pharmacy - Time Asia 22 Jan 2001 Vol. 157. No. 3 Online available at http://www.time.com/time/asia/magazine/2001/0122/drug.impact.html
Genomes and Comparative Genomics
Over the last decade we have achieved rapid strides in the field of genetic engineering. The study of molecular biology has been fairly advanced mainly aided by the unprecedented growth in information technology. Today bio-informatics has opened new vitas for us and we are already progressing in investigating and in the comparative study of genomes. This has shed new light up on our knowledge of the evolutionary process and the important concepts such as protein folding and selective expression, which have so far eluded our understanding, are beginning to unfold. Let us have a brief overlook of the subject.
The Role of DNA
One of the greatest achievements of the twentieth century has been the unraveling of the mysteries behind the DNA and the mechanism of protein synthesis. Genes are the fundamental units of biological inheritance and are made up of Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Genes are responsible for the…...
mlaBibliography
Mullis, KB (1990), Scientific American, April 1990, 56
Hecht, J., 19 May 2003, Chimps are human, gene study implies, New Scientist
Cohlan, A., 30 May 2002, "Just 2,5% of DNA turns mice into men," New Scientist
TK Attwood & DJ Parry Smith, "Introduction to bio Informatics," Published by ADDison Wesley Longman Ltd., 1999
(iii) in the United States, Brazil, Germany and France, humans have been receiving their own stem cells to re-grow heart muscle in the unforeseen incident of heart attack or injury. This was found to be successful in majority of the cases. (iv) in one more incident, the vision of 23 patients was restored after limbal adult stem cell transplants. This line of therapeutic care has assisted a lot of people who have been suffering from blindness for years together that includes the sufferers of mustard gas attacks in Iraqi. (Life Issues Institute, 2006) v) Crohn's disease patients have in fact been treated with stem cells evolved from their own blood. (vi) Among the 90% of the 19 patients having several autoimmune disorders like systemic lupus has been on the path to recovery following treatment with their own blood stem cells. (vii) a research of Parkinson's disease displayed an average…...
mlaReferences
AAAS Center for Science, Technology and Congress. (2007) "AAAS Policy Brief: Human
Cloning" Retrieved 28 March, 2008 at http://www.aaas.org/spp/cstc/briefs/cloning/
Barnes, Deborah. (n. d.) "Research in the News: Creating a cloned sheep named Dolly"
Retrieved 28 March, 2008 at http://science-education.nih.gov/home2.nsf/Educational+ResourcesTopicsGenetics/BC5086E34E4DBA0085256CCD006F01CB
Another landmark case involved global giant British Petroleum (BP) in the largest fine in OSHA history. The case involved the explosion at a BP refinery in Texas that killed 15 people and injured 170 others. An OSHA press release notes, "This citation and penalty - nearly double the next largest fine in OSHA history - sends a strong message to all employers about the need to protect workers and to make health and safety a core value,' Solicitor of Labor Howard M. adzely stated" (Groover, 2005). The implications for human resource implementation are again clear. Without the proper training, the individuals in the plant did not operate some of the processing equipment effectively, and pressure built up in the unit that exploded. Part of the settlement required BP to "hire an expert to assess and report on communication within and between management, supervisors, and authorized employee representatives and non-management employees…...
mlaReferences
Editors. (2008). Breaking news: GINA becomes law May 2008. Retrieved from the Human Genome Project Web site:
Project Management, Sustainability and Whole Lifecycle Thinking
Module 5 Case -- the esearch Essay
For nearly the entirety of human civilization, thinkers, philosophers, and indeed most human beings, have struggled to determine the most elusive aspects of identity. Balancing the essence of human nature against the effects of environmental influence eventually formed the foundation of the ongoing debate concerning nature vs. nurture. With the advent of remarkable technology capable of mapping the human genome, most people in today's modern world believe that their genetic makeup holds the key to their future health, personality traits, intelligence quotient, and even their fears. The unique confluence of factors that combine to form the personality traits, behavioral patterns, and ethical boundaries exhibited by every human being has spawned two distinctly divergent theories, with the majority of people advocating the influence of genetics over external environment. Proponents of the "nature" point-of-view assert a person's physical appearance, mental…...
mlaReferences
Collins, W.A., Maccoby, E.E., Steinberg, L., Hetherington, E.M., & Bornstein, M.H. (2000).
Contemporary research on parenting: The case for nature and nurture. American Psychologist, 55(2), 218-231. Retrieved from http://digilib.bc.edu/reserves/py518/lent/py51802.pdf
Kelland, K. (2012, July 31). Does nature or nurture make a top sprinter?. Reuters.
Retrieved http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/07/31/oly-athl-m100m-package-genes -
Human Genome Project
Launched in 1990 as a collaborative initiative between the National Institutes of Health and the U.S. Department of Energy, the Human Genome Project completed its goal ahead of time despite the enormous challenges that were involved (Greene, 2006). The goals of the Human Genome Project included developing comprehensive genetic and physical maps of the human genome in order to determine the complete nucleotide sequence of the three billion base pairs that make up the human DNA and to identify the estimated 100,000 genes that are contained within the human genome (Greene, 2006). To determine the importance and implications of the HGP, this paper reviews the relevant literature, followed by a summary of the research and salient findings concerning this initiative in the conclusion.
eview and Discussion
1)
How will research in the Human Genome Project further medical research? What disorders are most likely to benefit from the project?
To date, the…...
mlaReferences
Burnes, D.P. & Antle, B.J. (2008, August). Mothers raising children with sickle cell disease at the intersection of race, gender, and illness stigma. Health and Social Work, 33(3), 211-
Greene, L.A. (2006, January). Human Genome Project information. Environmental Health
Perspectives, 109(1), 19.
Human Genome Project. (2015). National Portfolio Online Reporting Tools. Retrieved from http://report.nih.gov/NIHfactsheets/ViewFactSheet.aspx?csid=45&key=H#H .
However, the use of this technology has also introduced a whole host of ethical and health issues. This is important, because how these issue are wrestled with in the future, will determine the way this technology will be applied to daily life.
A bibliography that includes all references cited in the report and a 1-2 sentence summary of what information was gained from each reference.
20 Questions on Genetically Modified Foods. (2010). HO. Retrieved from: http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/biotech/20questions/en/
This source identified specific ethical and health issues that are affecting the use of genetic engineering. It was useful in recognizing specific factors and issues that could be affecting the way genetic engineering is impacting daily life.
The Search for the Structure of DNA. (2010). Online Ethics. Retrieved from: http://www.onlineethics.org/Education/precollege/scienceclass/sectone/cs4.aspx
This source was useful in providing background as to when DNA was discovered and what compounds were looked at before its discovery.
Ejelonu, A. (2002). hat is the Human…...
mlaWorks Cited
20 Questions on Genetically Modified Foods. (2010). WHO. Retrieved from: http://www.who.int/foodsafety/publications/biotech/20questions/en/
The Search for the Structure of DNA. (2010). Online Ethics. Retrieved from: http://www.onlineethics.org/Education/precollege/scienceclass/sectone/cs4.aspx
What is DNA. (2010). NIH. Retrieved from: http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/basics/dna
Ejelonu, A. (2002). What is the Human Genome Project. Serendip. Retrieved from: http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/biology/b103/f01/web1/ejelonu.html
The clinical trial team includes doctors, nurses, social workers, data entry technicians and other health care professionals (NWHRC 2005). They review a participant's health history and current medical intakes before the trial begins. They impart adequate information and instructions about the clinical trial, monitor each participant in the conduct of the trial and may contact the participant after the conduct of the trial.
Clinical trials or researches may also be open-label, placebo-controlled, double-blinded or randomized. They consist of four phases. Phase I establishes the maximum safe dosage; Phase II, its effectiveness; Phase III, its use on a broad population; and Phase IV, post-FDA insights on the effects of its long-term use (NWHRC).
From 1999 to 2000 alone, the Food and Drug Administration approved 73 new medications (NWHRC 2005). These included drugs for HIV, cancer, heart attack and Alzheimer's disease. As of 2000, Medicare covers many of the costs involved in participation in…...
mlaBibliography
Billings, P.R. (2002). Should reproductive cloning be made available to people who want their own biologic chidren - pro and con. 2 pages. International Medical News Group: Gale Group
Deneen, S. (2001). Designer people. 9 pages. E: the Environmental Magazine: Earth Action Network, Inc.
Frankel, S., et al. (2000). The limits to demand for health care. 10 pages. British Medical Journal: British Medical Association
Hollander, D. (2005). Abortion support slipping. 2 pages. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health: the Allen Guttmacher Institute
Gene Tech
Biological Basis
Personalized genomics and personalized medicine refers to a collection of technologies and techniques designed to custom design pharmaceutical treatments according to the patient's genome sequence. The starting point for personalized medicine, which has also been called "stratified medicine" or "precision medicine" is the completion of the Human Genome Project (NHMC, 2014). The Human Genome Project has permitted unprecedented access to genetic information and the implications the information has on human health factors.
A genome is the entire collection of genes, about 23,000 different ones, embedded in each cell of the body (The Jackson Laboratory, 2014). According to Snyder, Du & Gerstein (2010), determining a genome sequence involves "identifying single-nucleotide polymorphisms [SNPs] and structural variations [SVs], assembling new sequences, and phasing haplotypes," (p. 423). Although only two percent of the human genome is actually comprised of genes themselves, the human genome "influences how we look, our genetic predispositions for certain…...
mlaReferences
The Jackson Laboratory (2014). Personalized medicine and genomics. Retrieved online: http://www.jax.org/ct/genomics.html
"Personalized Medicine," (n.d.). U.S. News and World Report. Retrieved online: http://health.usnews.com/health-conditions/cancer/personalized-medicine/overview
National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC, 2014). Personalized medicine and genetics. Australian Government. Retrieved online: https://www.nhmrc.gov.au/your-health/genetics-and-human-health/genetic-testing-and-applications/personalised-medicine
Snyder, M., Du, Jiang & Gerstein, M. (2010). Personal genome sequencing: current approaches and challenges. Genes and Development 2010(24), 423-431.
technology has revolutionized society: communication, transportation, commerce, and especially medicine. . Ironically, for centuries and still in Oriental Medicine, healthcare was and is tailored to the individual. Even the Greek Physician Hippocrates wrote that he prescribed sweet elixirs to some and astringents to others depending on their individual condition (Pray, 2008). 21st century medicine, though, is more about an individual person's genetic code, and is made possible by advances in genetic technology and engineering. This is partially due to the Human Genome Project, a massive program completed in 2003 that focused on the identification of the individual genes that make up human DNA with the overall hope that it would initiate genomic medicine -- healthcare delivered based on the individual's medical history and genetic profile (About the Human Genome Project, 2011). Traditionally, medicine diagnoses human illnesses based on quantitative and qualitative signs and symptoms. With the advent of genetic…...
mlaReferences
About the Human Genome Project. (2011, September 19). Human Genome Management Information Systems. Retrieved from: / Human_Genome/project/about.shtmlhttp://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources
Gattaca. (1997, March). Retrieved from International Movie Database: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0119177/
Personalized Medicine - An Overview. (2011, January 11). Retrieved from: U.S. News Health report: http://health.usnews.com/health-conditions/cancer/personalized-medicine
Public Law 110-223. (2008). The Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008. Retrieved from: http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-110publ233/content-detail.html
Genetic Determinants of Complex Traits
The Role of Gene-Environment Interactions in the Development of Multifactorial Disorders
The Complexity of Polygenic Traits: Unraveling the Contribution of Multiple Genetic Variants
Epigenetics and Gene Expression: How Environmental Factors Influence Genetic Inheritance
Advancements in Genetic Technologies
The Impact of Next-Generation Sequencing Technologies on Genetic Research
CRISPR-Cas9 and Gene Editing: Ethical Considerations and Therapeutic Applications
Precision Medicine: Tailoring Treatments Based on Individual Genetic Profiles
Hereditary Diseases and Treatment
Genetic Testing for Hereditary Diseases: Implications for Prevention and Management
Gene Therapy: Current Challenges and Future Prospects
The Role of Pharmacogenomics in Personalized Treatment for Genetic Disorders
Genetic Diversity and....
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