HPV is the number one sexually transmitted disease in the U.S. The disease which used to be thought of as innocuous but annoying, which causes the growth of genital warts and other anomalies, has since been linked to abnormal tissue growth in the cervical area causing dysplasia and potentially cervical cancer among millions of women. The viral infection and more specifically HPV viral infection with one of only a few of more than forty forms of HPV is the most common cause of cervical cancer among women. (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2010) Since the early days of the discovery of this link researchers have been working toward creating an effective immunization that would protect women from contracting at least a few of the most serious forms of the disease. The catch is, like any other immunization, really the only viable protection from viral infections which the medical…...

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Resources

Brewer, N.T., & Fazekas, K.I. (2007). Predictors of HPV Vaccine Acceptability: A Theory-informed, Systematic Review. Preventative Medicine, 45 (2-3), 107-114.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) . (2010, October 15). Human Papilloma Virus (HPV). Retrieved November 10, 2010, from What is HPV?:  http://www.cdc.gov/hpv/WhatIsHPV.html 

Colgrove, J. (2006). The Ethics and Politics of Compulsory HPV Vaccination. New Englanf Journal of Medicine, 355, 2389-2391.

Kim, J.J., & Goldie, S.J. (2008). Health and Economic Implications of HPV Vaccination in the United States. New England Journal fo Medicine, 351, 821-832.

No medical treatment exists for treating HPV infection other than prevention through education about the dangers of multiple sexual partners and unprotected sex, because HPV infection is transmitted through sexual contact with an infected individual.

A vaccine is available, but both its high cost and several elements associated with its rushed approval by the FDA in 2006 suggest that further study is warranted before its wide-scale use, particularly on a mandatory basis in the manner of other inoculations.

ibliography

American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts & Figures, 2008. Atlanta: American Cancer Society: 2008.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines 2006. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2006; 55

Dunne EF, Unger ER, Sternberg M, McQuillan G, Swan DC, Patel SS, Markowitz LE. Prevalence of HPV infection among females in the United States. JAMA. 2007;297(8):813-9.

Garland SM, Hernandez-Avila M, Wheeler CM, Perez G, Harper DM, Leodolter S. Quadrivalent vaccine against human papillomavirus to prevent…...

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Bibliography

American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts & Figures, 2008. Atlanta: American Cancer Society: 2008.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines 2006. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2006; 55

Dunne EF, Unger ER, Sternberg M, McQuillan G, Swan DC, Patel SS, Markowitz LE. Prevalence of HPV infection among females in the United States. JAMA. 2007;297(8):813-9.

Garland SM, Hernandez-Avila M, Wheeler CM, Perez G, Harper DM, Leodolter S. Quadrivalent vaccine against human papillomavirus to prevent anogenital diseases. N Engl J. Med. 2007; 356(19):1928-43.

PICOT: HPV One nursing practice that is supported by the evidence in articles from the literature review is that increasing HPV health literacy among students will help to promote HPV vaccination and thus reduce the risk of the spread of HPV infection (Perkins, Chigurupati, Apte, 2016; Lamb, Herweijer, Ploner et al., 2018). By increasing health literacy and the advancement of knowledge and information among the target population (high school students), the target population is more likely to be informed of the risks of not getting vaccinated for HPV, how the vaccinations work, and why the spread of HPV should be a concern to them in the first place (Perkins et al., 2016; Lamb et al., 2018). Possible consequences of failing to adopt the strategy of increasing health literacy regarding the evidence-based practice of HPV vaccination, which is an effective strategy for mitigating the risk of the spread of HPV (Lamb et…...

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References

Lamb, F., Herweijer, E., Ploner, A., Uhnoo, I., Sundström, K., Sparén, P., & Arnheim-

Dahlström, L. (2018, January 12, 2018). Timing of two versus three doses of quadrivalent HPV vaccine and associated effectiveness against condyloma in Sweden: a nationwide cohort study. BMJ, 1-8. Retrieved from

Perkins, R. B., Chigurupati, N. L., Apte, G., Vercruysse, J., Wall-Haas, C., Rosenquist,

A., … Pierre-Joseph, N. (2016). Why don’t adolescents finish the HPV vaccine series? A qualitative study of parents and providers. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, 12(6), 1528–1535. http://doi.org.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/10.1080/21645515.2015.1118594

URL: https://www-ncbi-nlm-nih-gov.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/pmc/articles/PMC4964719/

http://bmjopen.bmj.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/content/7/6/e015021

As it has been used, it has been shown to be particularly successful in preventing cervical cancer in young women patients. Three authors write, "In clinical trials, the vaccine has been 100% effective in preventing the 2 types of HPV (types 16 and 18) responsible for 70% of cervical cancers and the 2 types of HPV (types 6 and 11) responsible for 90% of genital warts" (Vamos, McDermott & Daley, 2008). If the patient suffers from genital warts, they can be removed by a doctor using podophyllin solution, which is then washed off. In rare cases, they have to be removed by freezing, surgery, or with laser treatment (Editors). In the case of cervical cancer, it is usually treated with surgery to remove the cervix and any other affected organs, and then radiation or chemotherapy.
In some cases, people have had reactions to the vaccine, but they were mostly minor,…...

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References

Editors. "STD Facts." Centers for Disease Control. 2010. 12 April 2010.

Barrett, Michael, and Mary Bissell. "What Everyone Should Know about Human Papillomavirus (HPV): Questions and Answers." The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality 15.3-4 (2006): 171+.

Bertram, Cathy C., and Victoria P. Niederhauser. "Understanding Human Papillomavirus: An Internet Survey of Knowledge, Risk, and Experience among Female and Male College Students in Hawaii." American Journal of Health Education 39.1 (2008): 15+.

Howard, Michelle, et al. "Barriers to Acceptance of Self-sampling for Human Papillomavirus across Ethnolinguistic Groups of Women." Canadian Journal of Public Health 100.5 (2009): 365+.

Assessing the Genitalia and Rectum As the patient is sexually active, the bumps on the genitalia could be caused by genital warts or genital herpes, due to the herpes simplex virus. Other differential diagnoses could include contact dermatitis, folliculitis, acne inversa, and Molluscum contagiosum, which is “a viral infection characterized by lesions that can occur anywhere on the body, including the vaginal area” (Leonard, 2017).
Additional information that should be obtained from the exam would include more data about the patient’s personal medical history and whether the patient is undergoing a regular menstrual cycle. The patient’s age is listed as 21 but she is married with three children, plus sexually active with more than one partner in the past year, so there may be more information that is required about this particular set of data regarding personal history. It is important to make sure all information is up to date and accurate…...

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References

Ball, J. et al. (2017). Seidel’s guide to physical examination. Eslevier.

CDC. (2018). Genital warts treatment. Retrieved from

Leonard, J. (2017). How to get rid of vaginal pimples. Retrieved from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/317810.php

Wilson, D. (2017). Guide to vaginal lumps and bumps. Retrieved from https://www.healthline.com/health/womens-health/vaginal-lumps-bumpshttps://www.cdc.gov/std/treatment/2010/genital-warts.htm

 

HPV Case Study
The author of this report has been asked to assess and reflect upon a public health dilemma. In particular, the issue is whether HPV vaccination should be mandated or at least widely encouraged on a wide-spread or targeted basis. Unlike other vaccines such as those for polio, the measles, mumps, rubella and pneumonia, HPV cannot be contracted through casual contact. Indeed, sexual contact is really the only way to get it. At the same time, not being protected against HPV can cause cervical cancer in women. While there are certainly detractors when it comes to vaccines, the efficacy and importance of those vaccines cannot be understated or under sold.

The main dilemma cited is that HPV is not transmittable through anything other than sexual contact. While this may lessen the chances of it being passed from person to person, most everyone will engage in sexual contact at some point…...

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References

Bohlin, R. (2016). The Epidemic of Sexually Transmitted Diseases. Leaderu.com. Retrieved 17 March 2016, from  http://www.leaderu.com/orgs/probe/docs/epid-std.html 

CDC. (2016). CDC Press Releases. CDC. Retrieved 17 March 2016, from  http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2014/p0424-immunization-program.html 

Thornicroft, G., Brohan, E., Kassam, A., & Lewis-Holmes, E. (2008). Reducing stigma and discrimination: candidate interventions. Int J Ment Health Syst, 2(1), 3.  http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1752-4458-2-3 

Weissmann, J. (2014). For Millennials, Out-of-Wedlock Childbirth Is the Norm. Now What?. Slate Magazine. Retrieved 17 March 2016, from  http://www.slate.com/articles/business/moneybox/2014/06/for_millennials_out_of_wedlock_childbirth_is_the_norm_now_what.html

Perhaps the latter sentiment may be regarded as baseless speculation, but as we shall see after this section, there are a number of researchers whose view supports such a sentiment. Nonetheless, here is the report made available by the mainstream media in 2009:
CDC and FDA researchers wrote in the Journal of the American Medical Association that problems such as fainting and nausea remained rare among females who received Gardasil and the vaccine did not appear to be causing unusual side effects. The researchers said 32 deaths were listed in a government database that collects reports of health problems seen in people after vaccination. The reports show only that a patient became ill or died after receiving a vaccine, not that a vaccine was the cause. The FDA and CDC statement said 'concerns have been raised about' the reports of deaths of people who received Gardasil. 'There was not a…...

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Works Cited

Amiya, N. "Va Vaccines for human papillomavirus infection: A critical analysis." Publikationsansicht. 2009. Web. 15 Oct 2011.

Brinkman, S. "Gardasil Researcher Drops a Bombshell." The Bulletin. 2009. Web. 15

Oct 2011.

"Gardasil Vaccine Safety." FDA. 2009. Web. 15 Oct 2011.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a virus that causes warts. HPV is one of the most common sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). It belongs to the Papovaviridae family. HPV is a small oncogenic DNA virus, which infects epithelial cells of skin and mucous membranes. The epithelial surfaces include all areas covered by skin and/or mucous membranes of the mouth, genital and anus (the area that poop comes out of). A definitive diagnosis of HPV infection depends on the detection of nucleic acids (DNA or NA) or proteins.
Morphology

HPV is a relatively small, non-enveloped virus, and 55 nm in diameter. It has an icosahedral capsid composed of 72 capsomers, which contain at least two capsid proteins, L1 and L2. Each capsomer is a pentamer of the major capsid protein, L1. Each virion capsid contains several copies (about 12 per virion) of the minor capsid protein, L2. The virus is said to somewhat resemble a…...

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References

Anderson, N. And Pearsall, R. (2004). Microbiology a human Perspective. New York: Mc-Graw Hill

Burd, E. (2003) Human Papillomavirus and Cervical Cancer -- Burd 16 (1): 1 -- Clinical

Microbiology Reviews [Online]. [Accessed 25th April 2005]. Available from World Wide

Web:

Preferably, females should be vaccinated before onset of sexual activity. Sexually active females may also benefit from vaccination since there are very few young women are infected with all four HPV types that are targeted by the vaccine. Females who already have been infected with one or more HPV types would still get protection from the vaccine types they have not yet been exposed to. At the present time there is no test available for clinical use to determine whether a female has had any or all of the four HPV types targeted by the vaccine (HPV Vaccine Information for Clinicians, 2008).
The only way to prevent the spread of HPV and reduce the amount of cervical cancer cases that exist is to make the HPV vaccination mandatory. Those who argue against making the vaccination mandatory often claim that providing the vaccine will encourage promiscuity. This was the same argument…...

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Reference List

Boskey, Elizabeth. (2007). Should States Be Allowed to Mandate the HPV Vaccine? Retrieved

November 2, 2009, from About.com Web site:

 http://std.about.com/od/stdsinthemedia/i/hpvmandatevac.htm 

HPV Vaccine Information for Clinicians. (2008). Retrieved November 2, 2009, from Center for Disease Control and Prevention Web site:  http://www.cdc.gov/std/hpv/STDFact-HPV-vaccine-hcp.htm

Assuming all those issues are addressed, mandatory HPV vaccination may be a good idea for all children and the option should be made available to adults and funded, at least in part, by government funds and profit limitations on vaccine sales. EFEENCES

Allen, Terry, J. Merck's Murky Dealings: HPV Vaccine Lobby Backfires; Corpwatch (March 7, 2008). etrieved March 26, 2008, from Corpwatch: Holding Corporations Accountable website, at http://www.corpwatch.org/article.php?id=14401

Pharmaceutical News (March 5, 2008) Safety of Merck's HPV Vaccine Gardasil 'Lost' in Debate. etrieved March 26, 2008, from News-Medical.net…...

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REFERENCES

Allen, Terry, J. Merck's Murky Dealings: HPV Vaccine Lobby Backfires; Corpwatch (March 7, 2008). Retrieved March 26, 2008, from Corpwatch: Holding Corporations Accountable website, at  http://www.corpwatch.org/article.php?id=14401 

Pharmaceutical News (March 5, 2008) Safety of Merck's HPV Vaccine Gardasil 'Lost' in Debate. Retrieved March 26, 2008, from News-Medical.net website, at  http://www.news-medical.net/?id=22415 .

THEOETICAL APPLICATION 8Theoretical Application AssignmentPart One: The Health Belief Model and HPV Vaccination Uptake among Young AdultsCervical cancer is a fundamental health concern for nations globally. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine as an effective way to prevent HPV-related conditions, including cervical cancer (Alsulami et al., 2023). The vaccine is available for young children aged between 9 and 12, although young adults aged between 13 and 26 could also receive a catch-up immunization if they did not begin or complete the vaccination series before age 12 (Alsulami et al., 2023). According to Kamolratanakul and Pitisuttithum (2021), the HPV vaccine is 80 percent effective in preventing HPV-related infections. However, the uptake of the HPV vaccine among young adults in the United States and globally remains low. The health belief model provides a framework for understanding the possible reasons for this trend.The Health Belief ModelThe health belief…...

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ReferencesAlsulami, F., Sanchez, J., Rabionet, S., Popovici, L., & Baraka, M. A. (2023). Predictor of HPV vaccine uptake among foreign-born college students in the US: An exploration of the role of acculturation and the health belief model. Vaccines, 11(2), 422. DOI. 10.3390/vaccines11020422Boston University (2022). The Theory of planned behavior. Boston University.   J., Ferdous, T., & Shokar, N. (2020). HPV vaccine beliefs and correlates of uptake among Hispanic women and their children on the US-Mexico border. Cancer Control, 27(1), 1-9. DOI. 10.1177/1073274820968881Donadiki, E. M., Jimenez,-Garcia, R., Hernandez-Barrera, V., Sourtzi, P., Carrasco-Garrido, P., Andres, A., Jimenez-Trujillo, I., & Velonakis, E. G. (2014). Health belief model applied to non-compliance with HPV vaccine among female university students. Public Health, 128(3), 268-273. DOI. 10.1016/j.puhe.2013.12.004 Kamolratanakul, S., & Pitisuttithum, P. (2021). Human papillomavirus vaccine efficacy and effectiveness against cancer. Vaccines, 9(12), 1413. DOI. 10.3390/vaccines9121413 Sabouri, M., Shakibazadeh, E., Mohebbi, B., Tol, A., Yaseri, M., & Babaee, S. (2020). Effectiveness of an educational intervention using theory of planned behavior on healthcare empowerment among married reproductive-age women: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Education and Health Promotion, 9(1), 1-8. https://sphweb.bumc.bu.edu/otlt/mph-modules/sb/behavioralchangetheories/BehavioralChangeTheories3.html Calderon-Mora,

, 2010).
The importance of this study is threefold: 1) it allows a new series of assays to be used in the clinical setting to detect the more common HPVs that cause genital and anal warts; 2) the assays are both robust and yet inexpensive enough to use globally, and, 3) the tests are designed to use real-time PC technology, which allows for the rapid identification and quantification of these pathogenic types of HPV. The technology and protocols used in this development will also likely have an effect on the ability to roll out testing for other HPV-like viruses, ostensibly even the HIV virus in a real-time, inexpensive manner. The lab results also suggest that as the at risk population for HPV increases, early testing and intervention might reduce the number of symptomatic individuals since they will have been tested and potentially treated much earlier.

The developing world notwithstanding, HPV is estimated…...

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REFERENCES

Learn About HPV. (2011). American Social Health Association. Cited in:

http://www.ashastd.org/hpv/hpv_learn_men.cfm

Wallboomers, J., et al., (1999). Human papillomavirus is a necessary cause of invasive cervical cancer worldwide. Journal of Pathology. 189 (1): 9-12.

With our progressing knowledge in molecular biology and the increasing understanding of the various signaling pathways there is no question of doubt that in the near future the prognosis for OSCC would be considerably improved. As with any other disease, prevention is better than cure. Avoiding the well-known risk factors, a well-balanced nutritional plan and regular dental health checkups are the most effective means of preventing Oral cancers.
ibliography

1) Michael King, Kourt Chatelain & Dustin Farris et.al, 'Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma proliferative Phenotype is modulated by Proanthocyanidins: a potential prevention and treatment alternative for Oral Cancer', MC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2007, 7:22, 19 June 2007 http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6882/7/22

2) M. Chidzonga, L. Mahomva, 'Squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity, maxillary antrum and lip in a Zimbabwean population: A descriptive epidemiological study, Oral Oncology, 2006, Volume 42, Issue 2, Pages 184-189

3) National Cancer Institute, 'Oral Cavity', Accessed Jan 15th 2010, available online…...

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Bibliography

1) Michael King, Kourt Chatelain & Dustin Farris et.al, 'Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma proliferative Phenotype is modulated by Proanthocyanidins: a potential prevention and treatment alternative for Oral Cancer', BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2007, 7:22, 19 June 2007  http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6882/7/22 

2) M. Chidzonga, L. Mahomva, 'Squamous cell carcinoma of the oral cavity, maxillary antrum and lip in a Zimbabwean population: A descriptive epidemiological study, Oral Oncology, 2006, Volume 42, Issue 2, Pages 184-189

3) National Cancer Institute, 'Oral Cavity', Accessed Jan 15th 2010, available online at,  http://oralcancerfoundation.org/dental/pdf/oral_cavity.pdf 

4) Keyvan Nouri, 'Skin Cancer: Oral Cancer', McGraw-Hill Professional, 2007

SDG CEVICAL CANCE 7Empowering Societies to be Free of Cervical Cancer Project by the Breast and Cervical Cancer Screening Program (BCCSP)Section 1: IntroductionThe Breast and Cervical Cancer Screening Program (BCCSP) is an initiative of the Doctors Community Hospital in Prince George County, Maryland. The program began as a center offering free breast cancer education and screening to low-income women (age 40 or older) residing in Prince George County. However, with the rising cases of cervical cancer across the state, the BCCSP decided to expand its scope to cover cervical cancer and also move beyond screening and education to offer subsidized treatment and support to patients. The BCCSP is funded by the Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. The program proposes to implement a project dubbed Empowering Societies to be Free of Cervical Cancer between January 2024 and December 2025. The programs clinical team comprises of seven directors of medicine…...

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References National Cancer Institute (2022). Cancer stat facts: Cervical cancer. National Cancer Institute.   A. F., & Oshifogun, B. (2022). Perspectives of African-American women about barriers to breast cancer prevention and screening practices: a qualitative study. African Journal of Reproductive Health, 26(7), 22-28. Shah, J. S., Jooya, N. D., Woodard, T. L., Ramirez, P. T., Fleming, N. D., & Frumovitz, M. (2019). Reproductive counseling and pregnancy outcomes after radical trachelectomy for early stage cervical cancer. Journal of Gynecologic Oncology, 30(3), 1-10. United Nations (2023). Sustainable development goals: Goal 3 – Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages. United Nations.  https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/health/ World Health Organization, WHO (2022). Cervical cancer. World Health Organization.  https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cervical-cancer  https://seer.cancer.gov/statfacts/html/cervix.html Obinkule,

exually Transmitted Diseases in Developing Countries
exually transmitted diseases (TD's) have been a problem for doctors worldwide and governments around the globe for many years.

Pre-screening, diagnosis, and treatment programs are required to stop the spread of TDs.

A host of sexually transmitted diseases have, unfortunately, exploded in large numbers in the continent of Africa. These TD's include the HIV virus and the HPV virus, or human papillomavirus. HPV causes cervical cancer, and the HIV virus causes AID (auto-immune deficiency syndrome).

It is estimated that there are 100 million cases of AID worldwide, and that AID is now claiming more lives than all wars and natural disasters around the world.

In Africa, the problem is quite tremendous.

In outh Africa alone, there are 4.7 million people infected with the AID virus. outh Africa is the world's country with the largest infected population.

adly, it is estimated that worldwide, less than 1% of people infected with AID take…...

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See.American Social Health Association,  http://www.asha.com/programs/ccpp.html 

See also Qualitative Methods, Cornell. Edu. Located at http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/qualmeth.htm.

USDA Information Quality Guidelines for Statistical Information, located at   Seealso Qualitative Methods, Cornell. Edu. Located at http://trochim.human.cornell.edu/kb/qualmeth.htm.http://www.ocio.usda.gov/irm/qi_guide/stats.html .

1. The Impact of Immunizations on Public Health
2. Debunking Myths About Immunizations
3. The History and Development of Vaccines
4. The Importance of Childhood Immunizations
5. Immunizations: Protecting Against Preventable Diseases
6. The Controversy Surrounding Immunizations
7. Immunizations: A Global Perspective
8. The Economics of Immunizations
9. Immunizations for Adults: Why They Are Important
10. The Future of Immunizations: Advances and Challenges
11. Common childhood vaccines include the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine, polio vaccine, hepatitis B vaccine, diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (DTaP) vaccine, varicella (chickenpox) vaccine, Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine, and the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. These....

Essential Immunizations for Infants and Children
Immunization plays a crucial role in protecting infants and children from a wide range of potentially life-threatening diseases. The recommended immunization schedule is based on the best available scientific evidence and is designed to provide optimal protection at different stages of development.
Immunization Schedule
The following is the recommended immunization schedule for infants and children in the United States, as outlined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC):
0-6 months:
Hepatitis B (HepB)
Rotavirus (RV)
Diphtheria, Tetanus, and Pertussis (DTaP)
Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib)
Pneumococcal conjugate (PCV13)
6-18 months:
DTaP (2nd and 3rd doses)
Hib (2nd....

Chandipura Virus: A Significant Threat to Human Health
Introduction
Chandipura virus (CHPV) is a mosquito-borne alphavirus that belongs to the Togaviridae family. It was first isolated in 1965 from a deceased forest worker in Chandipura, India. CHPV has a wide geographic distribution, spanning from Southeast Asia to Africa. The virus causes a wide range of clinical manifestations, from mild fever to severe encephalitis. Due to its potential for causing neurological complications and its high mortality rate, CHPV poses a significant threat to human health.
Clinical Manifestations
CHPV infection typically presents with a febrile illness characterized by fever, malaise, headache, and muscle pain. In some....