Hepatitis A
Causative agent
Virus
Affects the liver
Symptomatic 2-6 weeks after exposure
Speaker notes: Hepatitis A is caused by a virus. Symptoms of hepatitis A include dark-colored urine, pale stools, chronic fatigue (with no other explanation), itching, anorexia (loss of appetite) and nausea, fever, vomiting, and jaundice. The symptoms usually present manifest 2-6 weeks after the initial exposure (Zieve 2011). To test for the disease, the doctor may test for raised IgM and IgG antibodies to hepatitis A and elevated liver enzymes through liver function tests (Zieve 2011). Persons in high-risk occupations may wish to be periodically tested.
eservoir
Food and water
Stool and blood
Sexual contact
Speaker notes: Disease reservoirs for hepatitis A include food that has been contaminated by the feces of carriers of the disease; contaminated water or ice; direct contact with stool or blood of persons with the disease; and sexual contact. To protect against food-borne transmission requires careful hand-washing, and the use of clean,…...
mlaReference
Hepatitis A (2013). World Health Organization (WHO). Retrieved:
http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs328/en/
Zieve, David. (2011). Hepatitis A PubMed Health. A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia.
Retrieved http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001323/
Hepatitis C
hat is the leading cause of liver disease? hat could cause so many people to require liver transplants? Most people on the street today would think that the answer to those questions would be alcoholism. And, although alcohol does do its fair share of damage to livers around the world, there is a greater source causing chronic liver disease out there.
This term paper will attempt to shed light on the hepatitis virus. The correct pronunciation would be: (h-p ? t? t-s). There are several strains of the hepatitis virus with some being non-issues and others being incurable killers. This report focuses specifically on the Hepatitis C virus which falls under the incurable killer header. This strain of the viruses can never be taken lightly.
There are many ways for an individual to acquire the hepatitis C virus into their system; however, there is currently no cure once it has been…...
mlaWorks Cited
Askari, Fred K., and Cutler, Daniel S. Hepatitis C, the Silent Epidemic: The Authoritative Guide. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing, 1999.
Bacteriology. Ed. IUSM Microbiology Core. IUSM Microbiology Core. 12 Apr. 2004 http://users.ipfw.edu/merkel/MicroCore.html.
Burke, William M., Vasant P. Dhopesh, and Taylor, Keitha R. "Survey of Hepatitis B and C. In Addiction Treatment Unit" American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse Vol. 26. (2000).
Hepatitis. Ed. hepatitis-central.com. hepatitis-central.com. 12 Apr. 2004 http://www.hepatitis-central.com/hbv/hepbfaq/other.html .
Hepatitis C Treatments: Their Link to Depression and Implications for the Social orker
The most commonly used treatment for patients suffering from Hepatitis C, a deadly liver disease, is the drug interferon combined with ribavirin. This treatment offers the most promise for a long-term positive prognosis. However, it has a known high rate for negative psychological side effects such as depression and other anxiety disorders. Clinical psychology can offer some solutions to this problem, both in assessing those patients who have increased risk factors for depression such as substance abuse or a history of depression, and in offering treatments to help ease the occurrence and severity of depression. This study will assess the risk for depression among the general population of Hepatitis C patients on interferon therapy.
Introduction
Hepatitis C virus is the most common liver disease in the United States. Approximately 1.8% of the U.S. population are infected, with approximately 74% of…...
mlaWorks Cited
Adams, F, Quesada JR, Gutterman JU. (1984) Neuropsychiatric manifestations of human leukocyte interferon therapy in patients with cancer. Journal of the American Medical Association. Volume 252, pp. 938-941 [Medline Database].
Alter, MJ, Kruszon-Moran D, Nainan OV, McQuillan GM, Gao F, Moyer LA, Kaslow RA, et al. (1999) the prevalence of hepatitis C virus infection in the United States, 1988 through 1994. New England Journal of Medicine. Volume 341, pp. 556-562 [Medline Database].
Boutiler, Alan and Hosein, Sean. (2000) Combination therapy for hepatitis C 7th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections, January 30 to February 2, 2000, San Francisco - TreatmentUpdate. The Community AIDS Treatment Information Exchange (CATIE) CATIE News: February 4, 2000. Retrieved at July 22, 2002.http://www.CATF-N20000202.html.
Brown, RR, Ozaki Y, Datta SP, Borden EC, Sondel PM, Malone DG. (1991) Implications of interferon-induced tryptophan catabolism in cancer, autoimmune diseases and AIDS. Advanced Experimental Medical Biology Volume 294, pp.425-435 [Medline Database].
It is primarily transmitted from patients to healthcare workers through exposure to infected blood by mistakes in procedures involving sharp instruments and needles. For this reason, healthcare workers are routinely vaccinated against blood-borne
Hepatitis (Taylor, 2005).
It is also possible to acquire HBV infection through sexual intercourse and especially through injection of intravenous drugs because IV drug users often share needles. While there is no cure for HBV infection, diagnosis is crucial because antiviral agents are capable of managing its symptoms and minimizing its damaging effect on the liver compared to untreated HBV infection (CDC, 2006).
Hepatitis C:
Hepatitis C is very similar to Hepatitis B, except that it is caused by a different virus, HCV. While it is possible to transmit HVC infection through sexual activity, it is much more often transmitted by blood-to-blood contact in medical settings where universal blood precautions are violated. The most common specific mode of HVC transmission…...
mlaReferences
The Bantam Medical Dictionary. (2003) New York: Bantam
U.S.D.H.H.S. (2006) Centers for Disease Control: Viral Hepatitis.
Accessed October 14, 2007, at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/hepatitis/
Taylor, C., Lillis, C., Lemone, P. (2005) Fundamentals of Nursing: The Art and Science of Nursing Care. New York: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins
Hepatitis C and Cellular Biology
Hepatitis C is a virus that affects over 2% of the global population (Belon & Frick, 2009). It is a virus that leads to chronic liver disease, and has many complications, including cirrhosis, fibrosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (Belon & Frick, 2009), and it is the leading cause of liver transplantation among countries in the developed world (Whidby et al., 2009). Hepatitis C establishes and maintains a life-long infection in individuals despite the fact that the virus is detected and targeted by immune mechanisms of the host (Sharma, 2010). The virus survives and persists due to rapid mutations that allow the virus to escape surveillance by immune mechanisms (Sharma, 2010). The hepatitis C virus itself is a very small hepatotropic NA virus that is enveloped and spherical (Sharma, 2010). The only available treatment option for Hepatitis C is administration of a long-acting pegylated-interferon-alpha in combination with nucleoside…...
mlaReferences
Belon, C.A. & Frick, D.N. (2009). Helicase inhibitors as spciefically targeted antiviral therapy for hepatitis C Future Virology, 4(3), 277-93.
Sharma, S.D. (2010). Hepatitis C virus: Molecular biology and current therapeutic options. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 131, 17-34.
Whidby, J., Mateu, G., Scarborough, H., Demeler, B., Grakoui, A., Marcotrigiano, J. (2009). Blocking hepatitis C virus infection with recombinant form of envelope protein 2 ectodomain. Journal of Virology, 83(21), 11078-89.
As the liver damage progresses, these symptoms may grow more severe. "The hepatitis C virus is linked to an increased risk of porphyria cutanea tarda, a condition that may cause a blistering rash, to cryoglobulinemia, which can cause a purplish rash (purpura) on…lower extremities, and may cause kidney damage" (Complications, 2009, The Mayo Clinic).
Symptoms
Many patients have no specific symptoms and the finding of abnormal hepatic transaminase levels on routine testing is what often prompts specific testing for hepatitis C (O'Shea 2009). Blood tests or a liver biopsy to determine the severity of the illness are usually used by doctors. "If test results indicate that you have HCV, your doctor may measure the quantity of the virus in your blood (viral load) and evaluate the genetic makeup of the virus (genotype). There are six known HCV genotypes. Knowing which genotype you have will help your doctor determine the best course…...
mlaWorks Cited
Complications. (2009). Hepatitis C The Mayo Clinic. Retrieved April 22, 2009 at http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hepatitis-c/DS00097 /DSECTION=complications
Hepatitis C: An epidemic for anyone. (2009). Dartmouth Medical School. Retrieved April 22,
2009 at http://www.epidemic.org/theFacts/hepatitisC/anatomy/
O'Shea, Robert. (2009). Hepatitis C The Cleveland Clinic. Retrieved April 22, 2009 at http://www.clevelandclinicmeded.com/medicalpubs/diseasemanagement/hepatology/hepatitis-C/#cesec2
Antiviral treatment is used in some cases, especially for treating Hepatitis C, but many of the side effects of this treatment are similar to the symptoms of hepatitis itself, and can become so life threatening that such treatments must be discontinued in some cases. In cases where treatment is absolutely needed but antiviral treatments either will not adequately address the cause of the disease or is deemed too dangerous, the only real option for treatment is a liver transplant -- when symptoms are bad enough to cause immediate concerns for health and quality of life, the liver is often too damaged for the body to repair it. It is for this reason that hepatitis often goes untreated; the complications of a liver transplant can themselves be life-threatening and lead to ongoing health problems, making it hardly preferable to most mild cases of hepatitis despite the chronic nature of the…...
mlaReferences
Mayo Clinic. (2010). http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/hepatitis-c/DS00097
Medline Plus. (2010). http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001154.htm
Web MD. (2010). http://www.webmd.com/hepatitis/default.htm
Hepatitis D, HDV is a subviral satellite that is not classified in a viral family. Dr. Mario Rizzeto identified in 1977 a nuclear antigen that was subsequently established to derive form what was named Hepatitis Delta Virus ()This is the only virus under the genus deltavirus (Hepatitis D Virus, 2005). The history of this interesting unique satellite small virus is short and therefore researches are still searching for possible new genotypes and prevention and treatment methods.
The new satellite virus was established to depend entirely on the Hepatitis Virus for its production and transmission. HDV depends on the Hepatitis surface antigen provided by the HV that the former uses to form its envelope of particles (Handa, Yamaguchi, 2006). Although HDV is considered as a satellite virus of HV, it does not present the same sequence as the later and it its replication is not dependent on the HV (Hepatitis…...
mlaBackground on HDV Replication. Retrieved: Nov. 5, 2009. Available at: http://www.stanford.edu/group/virus/delta/2005/newresearcha.html
Hepatitis D Foundation. Retrieved: Nov 5, 2009. Available at: http://www.hepb.org/hepb/hepdconinfection.htm
Viral Zone. Retrieved: Nov 5, 2009. Available at: http://www.expasy.org/viralzone/all_by_species/175.html
Hepatitis C virus infection Trends among MSM that attend clinics for sexually transmitted infections: 1995 to 2010
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) has been noted since 2000 as a "sexually-transmitted-infection" (STI) amid MSM that are HIV-positive. This paper seeks to cross-examine the HCV occurrence among MSM attending a big STI-clinic located in Netherlands. There is need to examine data, and down the time profile, on chronic and acute infection of HCV among the MSM that are both HIV negative and positive, so as to establish the state of the disease and the causes, and to plan how to prevent its spread, in addition to identifying affected cases.
In the course of the anonymous cross-sectional surveys that are conducted every two years from 1995 to 2010, people had been interviewed as well as checked for evidence of HCV and HIV antibodies. There is a standardized questionnaire that has questions to find out about the…...
mlaReferences
Lacombe, K. & Rockstroh, J. (2012). HIV and viral hepatitis coinfections: advances and challenges. Gut, 61 (Suppl 1): i47 -- i58.
Urbanus, A.T., Van De Laar, T.J.W., Geskus, R., Vanhommerig, J.W., Van Rooijen, M.S., Schinkel, J. ... & Prins, M. (2014).Trends in hepatitis C virus infections among MSM attending a sexually transmitted infection clinic; 1995-2010, AIDS, 28:781-790
Hepatitis C
Anatomy of the Liver
The liver is found at the upper right hand portion of the abdominal opening just under the diaphragm, but over the stomach, right kidney and intestines. It is a cone shaped organ that weighs approximately 3 pounds and appears to be dark red in color (USC Liver Transplant Program and Center for Liver Disease, 2012).
(1) right lobe, (2) left lobe, (3) caudate lobe, (4) quadrate lobe, (5) hepatic artery and portal vein, (6) hepatic lymph nodes, (7) gall bladder
The liver has two main sources of blood; blood from the hepatic artery, which is oxygenated and nutrient-rich blood from the hepatic portal vein. The liver contains up to one pint of the host body's blood supply all the time. It has two main lobes comprising of myriad of lobules. These lobules are also linked to tiny ducts that are also linked to larger ones from hepatic duct.…...
mlaReferences
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2008, June 23). Hepatitis C FAQs for the Public. Retrieved November 17, 2012, from www.cdc.gov.
USC Liver Transplant Program and Center for Liver Disease. (2012). About the Liver. Retrieved November 17, 2012, from http://www.surgery.usc.edu/divisions/hep/abouttheliver.html
Hepatitis C: Brief Overview and Statistics
1. The nature of the problem
Hepatitis C refers to an infectious disease of the liver: it can manifest as either mild or severe and lasting in term for a few weeks or for as long as the infected individual might live (cdc.gov, 2018). It develops within the individual as a result of a contamination via the Hepatitis C virus, spread mainly via blood-to-blood contact (cdc.gov, 2018). This disease can be either acute or chronic, though acute infections often develop into chronic ones; around 75-85% of acute cases eventually develop into chronic cases (cdc.gov, 2018). This disease can cause long term liver damage that sometimes lasts a lifetime and leads to even more serious conditions such as scarring of the liver or cancer of the liver (cdc.gov, 2018).
By referring to Hepatitis C as a blood-to-blood illness, this refers to the way in which the virus is…...
mlaReferences
Cdc.gov. (2018, April 23). Hepatitis C FAQs for the Public | Division of Viral Hepatitis | CDC. Retrieved from Mohamed, A. A., Elbedewy, T. A., El-Serafy, M., El-Toukhy, N., Ahmed, W., & El Din, Z. A. (2015). Hepatitis C virus: A global view. World journal of hepatology, 7(26), 2676.Petruzziello, A., Marigliano, S., Loquercio, G., Cozzolino, A., & Cacciapuoti, C. (2016). Global epidemiology of hepatitis C virus infection: An up-date of the distribution and circulation of hepatitis C virus genotypes. World journal of gastroenterology, 22(34), 7824.Who.int. (2017, October 2). Hepatitis C. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-chttps://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/hcv/cfaq.htm
Hepatitis B
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a major public health problem across the globe as it contributes to nearly 1 million deaths annually. It is an infection that basically attacks the liver and has the potential to generate acute and chronic diseases. This communicable disease is mostly transmitted from mother to child during birth. Additionally, HBV is transmitted through contact with body fluids like blood. Since it is a life-threatening condition, the viral infection has received considerable attention in the healthcare sector. Healthcare professionals and other relevant stakeholders have developed various initiatives to help lessen the prevalence of this infection and mitigate its impacts worldwide. This paper analyzes this communicable disease, determinants of health relating to its development, epidemiological triad, and role of the nurse practitioner in the management of the infectious disease.
Analysis of the Communicable Disease
The World Health Organization (2019) defines hepatitis B virus as a viral infection that…...
Hepatitis C: New CDC Screening Recommendations
The objective of this study is to review the article written by Doug Campos-Outcalt entitled "Hepatitis C: New CDC Screening Recommendations" published in the Journal of Family Practice, Volume 61, Number 12 in December 2012.
Campos-Outcalt (2012) writes that the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) released new recommendations for Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection screening including a one-time screening for all individuals in the United States that were born between the year of 1945 and 1965 "regardless of risk." The new recommendations are reported to be rather than a replacement to be instead an enhancement of "the recommendations for HCV screening" stated in 1998 calling for those who were considered high-risk to be screened.
HCV results in a high level of morbidity and mortality in the United States. There are reported to be 17,000 new infections to have occurred in 2010 with approximately 2.7 to…...
mlaIt is reported that the two groups at the highest risk for HCV are those who are users of illegal drugs, which they injected, and those who received blood transfusions prior to 1992 when HCV blood screening began. There are other risk factors, which include having been incarcerated, having sex with someone infected with HCV, and the acquisition of a tattoo at an establishment that was unregulated, among others risk factors for contracting HCV. According to Campos-Outcalt, sustained virological response following treatment was demonstrated in individuals exhibiting a "reduction in all-cause mortality >50% compared with nonresponders." (Campos-Outcalt, 2012) Individuals born between 1988 and 1994 are much more likely to have contracted HCV than those born between 1999 and 2002.
Observational Studies and Reported Outcomes
Twelve observational studies are reported that examined treatment effects on the incidence of HCC and are reported to have shown a "75% reduction in HCC rates in those who achieved viral clearance compared with those who did not." (Campos-Outcalt, 2012) Physicians are advised that if there is a positive on a confirmatory test that the patient should be assumed to have HCV infection. The patient must decide if treatment is to be initiated and must undergo additional assessment to check for chronic liver disease. Measures should be taken to protect their liver from receiving additional damage including alcohol consumption reduction, medication avoidance and use of herbal products that result in liver damage. Patients infected with HCV should focus on the maintenance of an optimal weight and should receive vaccines against hepatitis A and B. AS well, patients should be instructed on how to avoid spreading the HCV infection to other people. There is noted by Campos-Outcalt (2012) to be controversies on HCV screening in regards to improvements in outcomes. For this reason the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force is presently conducting a revisement of the HCV recommendations for screening.
hepatitis of the liver and how they are transmitted to how we can find a remedy to slow down the deterioration process if not cure it completely.
Hepatitis
Hepatitis A
Hepatitis B
Causes of hepatitis B
Transmission of hepatitis B
Symptoms
Tests for hepatitis B
Self-protection
Hepatitis C
isk Factors for HCV Infection
Consequences of HCV Infection
Diagnosis
Hepatitis is the disease connected with the inflammation of the liver. This disease was not discovered too long ago, however doctors and researchers have been able to find out the causes of hepatitis. There are several causes such as, viral, parasitic, infiltrative, drug or alcohol induced, or non-specific. Before a person is even diagnosed with this disease some of the prominent indications of the acute phase can be ranging from a symptomatic, where we may not even be able to notice we have hepatitis to feeling extremely tired, jaundice- where our skin or our eyes become yellow, nausea, vomiting, or even diarrhea.
When the concerned…...
mlaReferences
A Commitment to Global Health - Text version, available at:
accessed on:http://www.niaid.nih.gov/director/usmed/1999/usmed99text.htm ,
February 9, 2004
BioE: News and Press Releases, available at: accessed on: February 9, 2004http://www.bioe.com/news.html,
Cure for Hepatitis C
The medical community continues to scramble to find a cure for Hepatitis C, a disease that threatens the liver and can often prove to be fatal to those who become infected with it.
Hepatitis C is a blood borne disease that can be acquired through shared needles, blood to blood contact and other contact with bodily fluids. Hepatitis C has symptoms that include fatigue, vomiting, jaundice, pain in right side going through to the back sometimes and elevated liver enzymes. Once one is infected with Hepatitis C there is no cure though current research is working to locate one.
Currently there is no cure for Hepatitis C and part of that is because of the mutating ability of the disorder. Even within the same patient the disorder can mutate and change many times. This presents a serious problem in the quest for a cure or vaccine though scientists are…...
mla
Drug Trafficking in Italy: A Complex and Evolving Problem
Introduction
Italy, located at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Sea, has long been a strategic transit route for drug trafficking from producing countries to consumer markets in Northern Europe and beyond. In recent years, the country has faced significant challenges in combating drug trafficking, with organized crime groups playing a major role in the illicit trade. This essay will explore the current state of drug trafficking in Italy, examining its impact on society, the efforts of law enforcement to combat it, and the need for comprehensive strategies to address this complex problem.
The Role....
Thesis Statement: The effective management of human waste is crucial for safeguarding public health, preserving the environment, and promoting sustainable development.
Introduction:
In the tapestry of human existence, managing human waste is an intricate thread that intertwines with public health, environmental well-being, and sustainable development. Inefficient or inadequate waste management practices pose significant risks to human health, contaminate water bodies, pollute the air, and contribute to climate change. Recognizing the urgency of addressing this issue, this thesis delves into the complexities of managing human waste, exploring strategies and solutions to mitigate its adverse effects.
Body Paragraph 1: Public Health Implications
The improper handling of....
Implications of Decriminalizing Drugs on Society
Decriminalizing drugs refers to the removal of criminal penalties for the possession and use of specific substances, while maintaining legal sanctions for their sale, distribution, or production. This policy shift has gained significant attention in recent years as a potential means of addressing the social, economic, and public health consequences associated with drug use and prohibition.
1. Reduced Incarceration Rates:
One of the most immediate implications of decriminalization is the reduction in drug-related arrests and incarcerations. By eliminating criminal penalties for possession and use, decriminalization frees up law enforcement resources to focus on more serious crimes and....
1. The Impact of Immunizations on Public Health
2. Debunking Myths About Immunizations
3. The History and Development of Vaccines
4. The Importance of Childhood Immunizations
5. Immunizations: Protecting Against Preventable Diseases
6. The Controversy Surrounding Immunizations
7. Immunizations: A Global Perspective
8. The Economics of Immunizations
9. Immunizations for Adults: Why They Are Important
10. The Future of Immunizations: Advances and Challenges
11. Common childhood vaccines include the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine, polio vaccine, hepatitis B vaccine, diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (DTaP) vaccine, varicella (chickenpox) vaccine, Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) vaccine, and the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. These....
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