The subject of the book is clearly applicable to the field of paleoanthropology because the same techniques can be applied to studies of human populations and their response to changes in the environment. In the contemporary world, the discussions in the book are also important in analyzing the nature of global warming, what might cause it, and what its consequences might be, given that global warming is one of the issues raised as a cause for the Permo-Triassic extinction. The book therefore may suggest what sort of future we ourselves face if the temperature does warm to a significant degree over the next several decades.

In addition, the book can give the reader a good idea of the sort of work being done today in developing an image of the change that has already taking place and so the change that might be taking place now worldwide. Those who believe that…...

Extinction of the Native American
The area of the world that is now known as the United States of America used to belong to various tribes of people which are now known as Native Americans as opposed to their old name, Indians, which was a misnomer based on the erroneous idea that explorers from Europe did not know that such a large land mass existed and that by crossing the Atlantic Ocean, they had made it to the country of India. hen Europeans first arrived in this country, they were highly outnumbered by populations of Native Americans. The United States of America is a nation that was built on the ideas of life, liberty, pursuit of happiness, and freedom for all persons. Yet, that freedom has been won only through the genocide of hundreds of thousands of people. In the course of a few centuries, the Native American peoples have been…...

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Works Cited:

Alexis de Tocqueville. Tocqueville and Beaumont on Race. 1831.

Benjamin Franklin. Remarks Concerning the Savages of North America. The Norton Anthology

of American Literature. 1782.

Bruce Johnson. Encyclopedia of American Indian History. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2008.

Early Education Shows No enefit (HSLDA 2007)

This article argues for the viewpoint that Head-Start-type early education is not only non-productive, but can actually lead to detriments to children's development as they enter formal school. The article begins by citing the results of a recent study of 35,000 students by Durham University, which found that there was no benefit to pre-school education programs for children. The article points to a series of earlier studies, reaching back to the 1960's, which demonstrate that there are no lasting benefits: it is clear from these studies that summer pre-school programs show no short-term or long-term gains, while all-year pre-schools offer some advantages only in the first year or two of formal schooling. The article also argues that children who go to pre-schools too young suffer from being away from their parents, and may have behavioral difficulties later. One could expect that those who back…...

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Bibliography

Bethell, T. "Against Sociobiology." First Things. 2001.   (Accessed November 20, 2007).http://www.firstthings.com/article.php3?id_article=2126 

CER. "Education Programs Constitutional; Growth Steady." EdReform. com. July 26, 2007.   (Accessed November 20, 2007).http://www.edreform.com/index.cfm?fuseAction=document&documentID=2691&sectionID=122&NEWSYEAR=2007 

Crawford, C.B. And Krebs, D.L. Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology: Ideas, Issues, and Applications. Mahwah: Lawrence Eribaum, 1998.

Crawford, C.B. And Sheib, J. The Essence of Evolutionary Society: An Introduction. 2004.

Front-line Application

The most obvious front-line application of this study is in the conceptualization of the relative needs of the respective species in connection with human efforts to prevent extinction, especially extinction that is directly attributable to human activity. The traditional approach to species conservation emphasizes the data establishing declining populations. That approach ignores species that are equally at risk by virtue of human activity. Therefore, continued reliance on that approach to defining acceptable human activity in sensitive habitats and to allocating conservation attention and resources does not adequately protect species that may be tremendously vulnerable to extinction within a relatively short period of habitat invasion by human activity.

Relevance to Course Issues

We learned (among other things) that natural habitats are the product of so many specific relationships, phenomena, and delicate balances that it can be extremely difficult to predict the way that human activity might disrupt those natural habitats. We also…...

Target Behavior
Nail biting (onychophagia) is a bad habit, and the target behavior is the complete extinction of this habit. The baseline behavior has been observed and plotted in the following table:

Dimensions of Measurement

Frequency and Duration

Frequency and Duration

Frequency and Duration

Baseline Measurement

Once per hour for minimum of ten seconds

Once per 90 minutes for minimum of ten seconds

Once per 120 minutes for minimum of five seconds

Function of Baseline Behavior

Distraction from work

Distraction and detachment

Distraction and frustration channeling

Methods to observe and acquire baseline behavior include both the frequency and duration of the behavior, observed over the course of three days. The baseline measurement prior to the intervention included a notation of both frequency and duration of the nail biting. On day one, the frequency was once per hour, but on days two and three the frequency went down in increments of 30 minutes. By day two, the frequency had lowered to once per 90…...

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References

Chan, A.L. (2014). Why biting your nails is more than just a bad habit. Huffington Post. Retrieved online:  http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/08/18/nail-biting-bad-for-you_n_5675467.html 

Gibson, L.E. (n.d.). Does nail biting cause any long-term nail damage? Mayo Clinic. Retrieved online:  http://www.mayoclinic.org/healthy-lifestyle/adult-health/expert-answers/nail-biting/faq-20058548 

"How to Stop Nail Biting," (n.d.). WebMD. Retrieved online:  http://www.webmd.com/beauty/nails/stop-nail-biting-tips 

Standen, A. (2012). Nail biting: mental disorder or just a bad habit? NPR. Retrieved online:  http://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2012/10/01/161766321/nail-biting-mental-disorder-or-just-a-bad-habit

Extinction
Punctuated Equilibrium

Evolutionists for generations after Darwin imagined a slow and steady process of adaptation, in which daily culling and breeding success very gradually adapted a population from one form into another. Such a process would not be dissimilar to unnatural selection, such as that done with domesticated animals, that gradually worked to change a wolf into a little Cairn Terrier or Shih Tzu. However, some have suggested that there might be a more sudden sort of change involved, in which evolution moves suddenly and with great speed. This theorized form of evolution, called punctuated equilibrium, has been widely debated, but seems to be increasingly accepted by scientists. There appears to be evidence for punctuated equilibrium from laboratory experiments, from field and fossil evidence, from theory and even from Darwin's original work.

It is a common misconception that evolution cannot be experimentally studied in laboratories -- actually, a number of studies have…...

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Bibliography

Broyles, R.C. 1997. Punctuated Equilibrium. http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Lab/1366/pe.html

Kerr, R.A. 1995. Did Darwin get it all right? Science, v267 n5203 p1421(2)

Mlot, Christine. 1996. Microbes hint at a mechanism behind punctuated evolution. Science, v272 n5269 p1741(1)

Theobald, D. 2003. All you need to know about Punctuated Equilibrium (almost): Common misconceptions concerning the hypothesis of Punctuated Equilibrium. University of Colorado at Boulder. http://ucsu.colorado.edu/~theobal/PE.html

1. The bookmarks indicated the following six events: · Formation of the earth and moon 4.6 billion years ago
· Earliest life, 3.9 billion years ago
· Early land plants 420 million years ago
· Largest mass extinction 248 million years ago
· Dinosaur extinction 65 million years ago
· "Lucy", early hominid, 4 million years ago

2. In the Archaean period, there are cyanobacteria and stromatites.

3. The three periods of time that are described as eras are the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic, and the Cenozoic.

4. There are five mass extinction events listed. They are:
End-Orcovician, where many types of ocean life became extinct including trilobites, brachiopods, and graptolites. The Late Devonian, stromatoporoids, brachiopods associated with reefs and more trilobites all became extinct, as coral systems suffered heavy losses. The End-Permian extinction saw some corals, trilobites, and types of brachiopods, orinoids and shelled cephalopods all became extinct at this time. The End-Triassic extinction hit many of those same groups,…...

eversing Extinction Without etraining
einstate CS without U.S.

The association between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (U.S.) is believed to be the result of synaptic connections that formed during the pairing of the CS and U.S.. Extinction training had therefore been proposed to represent the dissolution of these connections (reviewed in Gupta, Vig, Noelle, 2011). However, a large body of evidence argues against this model and suggests conditioning and extinction represent two functionally distinct neurobiological systems; one for the acquisition of an CS-U.S. association and the other capable of inhibiting this association. This would explain the phenomenon of 'savings', which represents the ability of a response to be restored with little effort after extinction training. The second model also explains why a second round of extinction training takes less time to work. The neuronal connections that were formed during the CS-U.S. pairing therefore remain intact, even after extinction training,…...

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References

Gupta, Ashish, Vig, Lovekesh, Noelle, David C. (2011). A dual association model for the extinction of animal conditioning. Neurocomputing. Published online ahead of print. Retrieved September 3, 2011 from  http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S092523121100422X 

Thanellou, Alexandra and Green, John T. (2011). Spontaneous recovery but not reinstatement of the extinguished conditioned eyeblink response in the rat. Behavioral Neuroscience, 125, 613-625.

Contrary to what one would expect if the extinction were gradual, the existing history of fossil records indicates that dinosaur were doing quite well up and that there were no factors threatening their extinction but that suddenly there is a complete loss of fossil history; a sudden extinction?
The collision theory is likely the most popular of the available approaches but there are several others including one that involves the idea that massive volcanic eruptions throughout the world caused the extinction of the dinosaur. The theory is that volcanic activity became so widespread as to cause a severe buildup in gas, ash, and dust to accumulate in the atmosphere to the point that the sun's rays were eventually lessened to the point that temperatures plummeted, plant life died, and the dinosaur could not adapt to their new environment and gradually died off as a result. The physical evidence for this…...

With the purpose of finding out what the minimum population to be introduced in a nature reserve was, wildlife biologists employed a computer simulated (stage 2) reproductive history of each bear in a population and altered the number of individuals so as to determine if certain numbers of bear populations would generate individuals who would last for 100 years. Even though this provided wildlife biologists with important information, they went further (step 3) and tried to see what happened if new bears were added to the initial population over the 100 years course. Wildlife biologists consulted historical data (step 4) with the intention of discovering what the home range (amount of land used throughout a lifetime) an adult female was. Combining information obtained during the previous steps, wildlife biologists found the minimum land area a bear population needed in order to have 50% chances of survival.
Step 6 involves the…...

However, there simply does not seem to be sufficient evidence for the disease hypothesis. First, there has been no evidence of disease found. Next, even extremely virulent diseases, like the plague or West Nile Virus, do not have the kill rates necessary to cause the extinction of an entire species. In addition, one has to realize that the extinction of large mammals coincided with the extinction of other animals, like birds, marsupials, placentals, testudines, and crocodilians. It is unlikely that a disease would be lethal in such a wide-variety of animal populations, especially when it did not destroy all species of certain animal genus.
The final theory is that a meteor killed the large mammals. There is evidence that meteor impacts caused earlier extinctions like the Permian-Triassic extinction and the extinction of the dinosaurs. Meteor impacts can interfere with food sources, because the resulting dust in the air interferes with…...

Extinction Events or Environmental Catastrophes
Many uncertainties exist over the acts and roles of extinction in the world today. Nonetheless, with all these uncertainties, it is possible to formulate reasonable statements that depict the probable role of extinction. The role of extinction can be thought to have some elements, most of which are instrumental in striking the relationship and power seen in evolution and extinction in the earth's history up to the appearance of hominids (8 million years ago) . For any widespread species or any group of a widespread species, extinction needs some bit of environmental shock that comes in the form of physical or biological aspects that normally occur. Such occurrences take place during the geological lifespans of the given species or groups of species. In this case, the shock that is resulting has to be applied with a rapidness that is enough to take place over a…...

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Reference list

Abe, Takuya, Simon A. Levin, and M. Higashi. 1997. Biodiversity and Ecological Perspective. New York, NY: Springer New York.  http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-1906-4 .

Courtillot, Vincent. 2002. Evolutionary Catastrophes: The Science of Mass Extinction. Cambridge [U.A.]: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Fry, Iris. 2000. The Emergence of Life on Earth: A Historical and Scientific Overview. New Brunswick, NJ [U.A.]: Rutgers University Press.

Kolbert, Elizabeth. 2014. The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History. New York, Routledge.

Without the mass extinction of the dinosaurs, is doubtful that human beings would ever have evolved in the first place. By comparison to the effects of the that meteorite, all of the human activity in the world that has ever occurred since the first human being who hunted for prey or started a fire is infinitesimally small and utterly insignificant.
More importantly, human concern for animal species extinctions seems to be largely predicated on our anthropomorphic impulses: that is, we have the greatest empathy for animals that remind us of ourselves or that seem appealing or "cute" to us. Consider the different way that we regard tuna and dolphin for just one example. We hunt the former so aggressively that we are on the verge of having to maintain wild tuna populations artificially if we hope to continue eating as much sushi and tuna fish sandwiches as we wish. Other…...

Mayan Civilization
Theories Of Collapse Of The Mayan Civilization

The Mayan civilization existed between the third and the tenth centuries A.D. In a region that covers the present parts of Guatemala, Yucatan, and Honduras. Historical analysis shows that the Mayan people had a lively trade irrespective of the poor nature of their soil and abundance of dense forest and insects. The marvel cities and advanced calendar system of the Mayan people attest to their prolific knowledge, expertise, and skills. The perfectly written and maintained manuscript compounds to the prowess nature of this population. However, most of the cities of the Mayan people remained deserted past the tenth century. The reasons behind their disappearance remain a mystery. An assortment of theories has been developed to explain their disappearance (Heley, 2010). Therefore, this research paper discusses two of the theories explaining the disappearance of the Mayan people alongside discussing the most effective theory that…...

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References

Heley, M. (2010). The Everything Guide to 2012: All you need to know about the theories, beliefs, and history surrounding the ancient Mayan prophecies. Cincinnati: F+W Media.

Foster, L.V. (2007). A brief history of Central America. New York: Facts on File.

Gill, R.B. (2001). The great Maya droughts: Water, life, and death. Albuquerque: Univ. Of New Mexico Press.

Simonian, L. (1995). Defending the land of the jaguar: A history of conservation in Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Gould's and Mayr's biological species concept, as presented by Stamos (2008). According to these scientists and to this species concept, two populations are termed as belonging to the same species if they are capable of interbreeding.
So, as Stamos further exemplifies, the chimpanzees form a single species, because they are capable of interbreeding, they are producing offspring. Human beings and chimpanzees are not capable of producing offspring together, so they belong to two different species. Furthermore, two races of dogs belong to the same species: they are capable of interbreeding and the resulting dog is also fertile. However, a horse and a donkey belong to different species: while they are able to interbreed, their resulting offspring is not itself fertile.

To sum up, my understand is that humans belong to the same species because of reproductive compatibility. At the same time, the human species is formed of different races, whereby the…...

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Bibliography

1. Stamos, David, (2011). Evolution and the Big Questions: Sex, Race, Religion, and Other Matters. John Wiley & Sons

2. Barnosky, A. et al. (2011). Has the Earth's sixth mass extinction already arrived? 3 MARCH 2011 | VOL 471 | NATURE | 51-55

3. Hill, Kevin, (1993). The Endangered Species Act: What Do We Mean

by Species? Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review. Volume 20, Issue 2, Article 3

An endangered species is a species that is on the brink of extinction.  Species can be endangered in two ways.  First, its habitat could be threatened in a way that makes extinction likely if no change is taken.  Second, the species could have experienced a significant decline in population that is likely to lead to extinction. In the United States, determination of whether a species is endangered is made by either the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service or the National Marine Fisheries Service, but designations vary from country-to-country.  Internationally, the International Union for Conservation of Nature makes....

Title: The Critical Reality of Global Warming: Challenges and Solutions

Introduction (300 words)

Definition and Overview: Begin by defining global warming and its relevance in the current global scenario.

Thesis Statement: Present a clear thesis that outlines your perspective on global warming, its impacts, and potential solutions.

Scope of Essay: Briefly describe what the essay will cover, including causes, effects, and mitigation strategies.

Section 1: Causes of Global Warming (600 words)

Human Activities: Discuss how industrialization, deforestation, and burning of fossil fuels contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.

Agricultural Practices: Explain the role of agriculture, including livestock farming and rice cultivation, in methane emissions.

Energy Consumption: Analyze how our....

 Introduction:

The Little Albert Experiment, conducted by John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner in 1920, stands as a seminal study in the field of psychology. This experiment sought to investigate the principles of classical conditioning, focusing on the acquisition, generalization, and extinction of conditioned fear responses in a human infant. The Little Albert Experiment has had a profound impact on our understanding of behaviorism and remains a foundational study in the history of psychology.

 The Experiment:

Watson and Rayner meticulously selected an 11-month-old infant, Albert B., for their experiment. They began by introducing Albert to a variety of stimuli, including a white rat,....

1. The causes and effects of air pollution in urban areas
2. The impact of plastic pollution on marine ecosystems
3. The role of industrial activities in water pollution
4. How deforestation contributes to environmental pollution
5. The health effects of pollution on human populations
6. The effectiveness of government policies in combating pollution
7. The role of technology in reducing pollution levels
8. The ethical implications of pollution on future generations
9. The connection between climate change and pollution
10. The importance of public awareness and education in addressing pollution issues
11. The link between pollution and wildlife extinction
12. Case studies of successful....