Expectancy theory of motivation, which was first created by Victor Vroom, has become a widely accepted theory for explaining how individuals make decisions regarding different behavioral alternatives.
According to Vroom (1964), an individual will act in a certain way "based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual."

The expectancy theory deals with internal processes that an individual goes through in order to decide whether they want to put forth the effort to achieve a specific goal. According to Vroom, three important elements must be considered when determining motivation.

The first of these elements is "valence," which describes the desire an individual has to obtain a goal or fulfill a need. The second of these elements is "instrumentality," which relates to the belief that if an individual puts in a certain amount of effort, then a desirable outcome…...

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Works Cited

Baron, J.N. & Cook, K.S. (1992). Process and outcome: Perspectives on the distribution of rewards in organization. Administrative Science Quarterly, 191-197.

Brown, E. (29, May 2000) Loving P & G, leaving a dot-com.,"

Fortune, 110-114.

Byrne, R. (1983). Inservice programs-What are the essentials for making them effective?. NASSP Bulletin, 67, 1-7.

g., they need self-confidence); B2 only works if the employee really fundamentally trusts that "their performance will lead to expected outcomes"; and B3 is successful only if the outcomes truly will satisfy her or him (Green, p. 3-4).
Has the expectancy theory been supported by the research?

Certainly there is a great deal of research that has gone into the expectancy theory and the research available for this paper reveals the theory is seen as believable and is well-supported. For example, Andrew J. DuBrin, Professor of Management in the College of Business at the Rochester Institute of Technology, writes in his book that thanks to the expectancy theory employers have at their disposal several courses of action vis-a-vis getting employees motivated. The theory "helps pinpoint what a manager must do to motivate group members and diagnose motivational problems," the professor asserts (DuBrin, 2008, p. 392). ith the expectancy theory at work, "individual…...

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Works Cited

Green, Thad B. (1992). Performance and Motivation Strategies for Today's Workforce: A Guide

to Expectancy Theory Applications. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood Publishing Group.

DuBrin, Andrew J. (2008). Essentials of Management. Florence, KY: Cengage Learning.

Liao, Hsiu-Li, Liu, Su-Houn, and Pi, Shih-Ming. (2011). Modeling Motivations for Blogging:

Expectancy theory is a main theory for the explanation of how people are motivated. Victor H. Vroom, is one of the leaders that best explain the theory and holds that the main motivation behind reaching a goal for any individual, is a person seeing and experiencing the worth of the goal, believing and witnessing what they are doing will lead to achieving said goal. “people’s motivation towards doing anything will be determined by the value they place on the outcome of their effort, multiplied by the confidence they have that their efforts will materially aid in achieving a goal” (Koontz, Weihrich, & Weihrich, 2007, p. 293).
Essentially, the anticipated worth created the product (motivation) that can then be applied to certain tasks, to achieve an objective. Confidence plays a role in this. The equation Vroom used for this was Force = valence x expectancy. Force equals the degree of an individual’s…...

Ethical Dilemmas 1
The workers have a right to unionize; however, the boss wants to do everything possible to divert people away from the union because the union will drive up costs for company. The ethical issue is that the boss wants to undermine the union’s influence by firing union leaders, hosting events that pull people away from union meetings, and offering promises to workers that it likely won’t keep.
The basic arguments for taking extreme measures to fight unionization efforts are rooted in ethical egoism, which posits that the ends justify the means (Holmes, 2007): the ends here being to keep costs low. This is put in terms the workers can understand by saying that if they want to keep their jobs they better not unionize—otherwise jobs will be sent overseas to defray costs. The argument against taking extreme measures to fight unionization efforts is that workers should be able to decide…...

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References

Holmes, A. (2007). Ethics: Approaching moral decisions. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.

" (Scholl, 2002) in contrast, equity theory stresses that when workers feel that their behavior is being fairly or equitably rewarded, they will excel, and profit sharing is likely to increase subjective factors such as organizational loyalty because profit sharing upon the part of a rich company is fair.
On a practical level, equitable forces in increasing employee motivation tend to be more difficult to measure in the short-term, unlike performance and productivity increases. and, although fairness is an important consideration, a sense of fairness is additionally often more difficult to systematize, unlike a schema of reward and punishment. Unlike equity theory, which must be holistic and organization-wide as a fair supervisor may have to enforce an unfair and inequitable corporate policy, in contrast, expectancy can be more carefully controlled and managed between an individual manager and employee, and encourages employees to exceed their own expectations of their own range of…...

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Works Cited

Scholl, Robert. (12 Oct 2002) "Expectancy Theory." Motivational Processes. Retrieved 2 Jul 2005 at http://www.cba.uri.edu/scholl/Notes/Motivation_Expectancy.html

Motivational theories certainly have their time and place. Beyond that, they probably work better for some people than others and the situation and context is obviously relevant. What motivates people obviously depends on their feelings, preference, environment and reactions to what is happening around them. Even so, there are several theories that will be reviewed in this report and they shall be reacted to in terms of how effective they might or could be. Beyond that, there will be a number of examples personal to the author and what has been experienced by that person. To be sure, not all motivational ploys work in all situations and the person doing the motivating and what they bring to the table in terms of experience and reputation certainly matters a great deal in the grand scheme of things. While some motivational theories are generally effective, assuming that this could or would be…...

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References

Benson, D. (2015). The five fundamental tasks of a transformational leader. Physician

Leadership Journal, 2(5), 58 -- 62. Retrieved from  http://go.galegroup.com .

libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&u=oran95108&v=2.1&

it=r&id=GALE%7CA431445071&asid=e5932b254c6458cfd8952d03cf09a2e6

Path Goal Theory
THEOY AND PACITCE: PATH GOAL THEOY

DEFINITION OF PATH GOAL THEOY

Path Goal theory is reported to be about "how leaders motivate subordinates to accomplish designated goals." (Northhouse, 2010, p.125) Path Goal theory is reported to have first been written early in the decade of the 1970s "in the work of Evans (1970), House (1971), House and Deasler (1974) and House and Mitchell (1974)." (Northhouse, 2010, p. 125) The goal of this theory of leadership is reported to enhance of performance and satisfaction of employees through a focus on motivation of employees. (Northhouse, 2010, paraphrased) eported as the basis for Path Goal theory is that which is gained from "expectancy theory, which suggests that subordinates will be motivated if they think they are capable of performing their work, if they believe their efforts will result in a certain outcome, and if they believe that the payoffs for doing their work…...

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REFERENCES

Northouse, P.G.(2010) Leadership Theory and Practice, 5th edition, Sage Publication. Read the chapter 7 on Goal Path theory.

Instead, it can provide an important springboard for future investigation in order to better understand the communication paradigms and expectations of cultures other than those in the United States. This, in turn, can lead to further nonverbal theorizing.
Furthermore, Burgoon's theory can also provide an important platform for more modern types of communication such as digital communication, for example (Littlejohn and Foss, 2009). Nonverbal cues are also inherent in this type of communication, although the assumption tends to be that this type of communication is primarily verbal. This is a very exciting development for communication studies. Currently, online communication has seen little in terms of formalizing theoretical findings. Because this communication medium is becoming increasingly important not only in personal interaction but also in the business world, it is becoming vitally important to provide theories of interaction by means of which such communications can most effectively be conducted. This can…...

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References

Littlejohn, S.W. And Foss, K.A. (2009). Encyclopedia of communication theory. Sage Publications.

Gudykunst, W.B. (2005). Theorizing about intercultural communication. Sage Publications.

Jacob, a. (2008). Expectancy Violations Theory (EVT) of Judee Burgoon. Retrieved from:  http://www.slideshare.net/ajacob/expectancy-violations-theory 

Kalman, Y.M. (2010). Online Pauses and Silence: Chronemic Expectancy Violations in Written Computer-Mediated Communication. Retrieved from:  http://www.kalmans.com/evt.pdf

The Behavior Valence and the Communicator Reward Valence together help show the range of G's response to my expectancy-violating behavior. However, as Burgoon and Hale state, many factors other than nonverbal expectancy violation may have contributed to G's response to my actions. For example, setting may have easily been a factor: libraries are for study and work, not for jocular embraces and easy-going times; secondly, had his friends been around and I included in their circle, such diminishment of space and embracing may have been deemed appropriate if the circumstances and the timing were right -- then again, perhaps not; thirdly, G having the type of personality he has, there is no guarantee that even someone with whom he desires to be on a more intimate footing would have received an overall positive valence from G. G may insist upon presenting himself ambiguously in all situations so as to resist…...

Employee Motivation
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is perhaps the most commonly known theory of motivation, which is likely due to the broad applicability of the theory. Maslow developed his hierarchy of needs as part of his research on human potential and a component of positive psychology he termed self-actualization (Maslow, 1943; 1954). Maslow believed that human motivation is heightened when people seek fulfillment through personal growth and discovery. Self-actualized people are fully engaged with their potential, in an ongoing, lifelong effort to create meaning in their lives through highly personalized, positive endeavor (Maslow, 1962).

Doubtless, employers would enjoy not having to be concerned with motivating their employees if, in fact, their employees would "self-actualize" through their work. Indeed, some people do experience self-actualization when they are engaged in their paid employment. But, perhaps more often than not, people who become self-actualized are able to spend time either playing or laboring in a…...

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References

Maslow, A.H. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-96.

Maslow, A.H. (1954). Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row.

Maslow, A.H. (1962). Towards a Psychology of Being. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company.

Tay, L., & Diener, E. (2011). Needs and subjective well-being around the world. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(2), 354.

A 2006 study of nurses cited "unsupportive management structures, autocratic and dehumanizing management styles…lack of autonomy in the workplace, professional jealousies...sub-optimal physical working conditions and shortage of staff…lack of opportunities for promotion or continuing one's professional education…inaccurate systems of performance…compounded by favoritism and racism" (King & McInerney 2006). While poor pay was an additional complaint, it was not the primary complaint. Although some of these stressors are institutional, others suggest that the intrinsic motivations of these workers, such as a desire for more education, were not satisfied.
Expectancy theory or the theory that individuals live up to expectations, seems to be supported by this data: when the nurses were solicited for input and treated like competent professionals with valuable skills and knowledge, they were more likely to live up to these ideals. The expectation that workers have the resources to manage stress and conflict becomes a self-fulfilling prophesy. Moreover, in…...

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References

Bell, EA & BD Bart. (1991, March-April) Pay for performance: Motivating the chief nurse executive. Nursing Economist, 9(2):92-6, 104.

King, LA & PA McInerney. (2006, November). Hospital workplace experiences of registered nurses that have contributed to their resignation in the Durban metropolitan area.

Curationis, 29(4):70-81.

Paulson, Amanda. (2009, March 18). Change pay, change performance?

The employees will alter their behavior accordingly, depending on which behavior they feel will have the most positive outcome.
Clearly the correct course of action for the company is to amend the reinforcement mechanisms. This can be done either through positive reinforcement or negative. Passing the course is mandatory, but passing the first time could receive a reward. The company could also reduce the benefit of taking the course. It probably will need to be paid time, but the company could avoid running the course at a nice hotel, instead using normal meeting rooms that do not convey any sense of reward. Make the course as horrible as possible so that employees will want to pass it as quickly as possible.

As well, the company could use negative reinforcement mechanisms. Employees could be punished for failing to pass the course the first time. There are legal limits as to what this…...

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Works Cited:

Glass, M. (2010). How can managers use reinforcement theory to motivate employees? Houston Chronicle. Retrieved September 26, 2011 from  http://smallbusiness.chron.com/can-managers-use-reinforcement-theory-motivate-employees-18559.html 

Mathibe, I. (2010). Expectancy theory and its implications for employee motivation. Academic Leadership: The Online Journal. Vol. 6 (3) Retrieved September 26, 2011 from  http://www.academicleadership.org/article/expectancy-theory-and-its-implications-for-employee-motivation

Smith School of Business (at the University of Maryland), where she was granted an MBA (Master of Business Administration) and also the courses of the MIT Sloan School of Management, where she received a Master of Science in management.
Professionally speaking, Fiorina occupied various secretarial positions; she was also a teacher of English in Italy and a receptionist. Her fruitful career began in 1980 when she joined at&T, where after various positions, came to be the company's Senior Vice President. In 1999 she joined Hewlett-Packard as Chief Executive Officer, but was forced to leave in 2005. After her departure from HP, Fiorina engaged in personal and political actions, such as the edition of her book Tough Choices: A Memoir, or campaigning with presidential candidate John McCain (Jacoby, 2008).

Carly Fiorina possesses numerous skills which qualify her for the leader's position. First of all, she has extensive knowledge and expertise, backed by…...

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References

Adams, K., 2009, McLaren Boss Retires, Classic and Performance Car,   accessed on January 21, 2009http://www.classicandperformancecar.com/news/octanenews/233620/ron_dennis.htmllast 

Williams, R., December 22, 2007, Why Mosley is Happy with the Season that Had Everything, the Guardian

Wolff, a., June 12, 2007, 'Better than Sex' That's how Formula One Phenomenon Lewis Hamilton Described Winning His First Pole, Sports Illustrated

2007, the FIA's McLaren-Monaco Statement in Full, Formula 1 Website,   accessed on January 21, 2009http://www.formula1.com/news/headlines/2007/5/6178.htmllast 

Performance Management Theories and Practices
Performance management is a continuous process by which an organization identifies, measures, and develops the performance of individuals. It aligns their performance, the resources and systems with the strategic goals of the organization. According to Leeuw and Berg (2011), companies that apply performance management practices generally perform better than those that do not.

The course has covered important performance management theories and practices. One key lesson learnt, for instance, is that for performance management practices to be effective, there must be constant communication between the management team and the employees; and it is imperative for the goals of the individual to be aligned with those of the organization (Pulakos, 2009). The performance management cycle also provided insight on how performance management systems should be implemented in the organization. The elements of this cycle include: setting the objectives; measuring the performance of individuals; providing feedback on the performance;…...

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References

Leeuw, S. & Berg, P (2011). Improving Operational Performance by Influencing Shopfloor Behavior via Performance Management Practices. Journal of Operations Management, Vol. (29) 3, 224-233. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.proxy-campuslibrary.rockies.edu/docview/866083571/50E9B56B076C4E25PQ/1?accountid=39364

Pulakos, E.D. (2009). Performance Management: A New Approach for Driving Business Results. (1st Ed.). West Sussex, United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell Publishers.

ork Motivation Assignment
Describe the Equity Theory.

Equity theory is a theory regarding the fairness and justice of material allocation between individuals. It is where workers believe they are being rewarded accordingly or not. If he or she is over or under awarded, a notion of anguish is created. In the end, further efforts must be committed to restore appropriate worth. The theory is basically about whether or not both parties are receiving proper and just shares of deserved resources. The value of equity is determined by measuring the amount of aid and contribution between each party. However, the former does not mean fiscal or emotional, and the latter excludes investment in time and effort. The balance in the equity theory and between the two parties means as long as they both exert similar efforts, a balanced ratio has been achieved. The theory suggests and predicts that a worker or individual's incentive…...

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Works Cited

"Adams Equity Theory Powerpoint." Docstoc. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. .

"Equity Theory." Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. .

"Organizational Behavior, 9/ESchermerhorn, Hunt, and Osborn (5)." SlideFinder. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. .

Redmond, Brian F., and Dillon JL Chong. "Equity Theory." WikiSpaces. Atlassian Confluence, 15 Feb. 2011. Web. 18 Mar. 2011. .

One of the struggles facing anyone in a management situation is figuring out how to keep the workforce motivated.  In fact, working on developing management techniques requires concentrating on how to motivate people, whether it is directly focused on techniques that can increase motivation or simply focused on changing worker’s perceptions of leadership, which can either be motivating or demotivating, depending on the perception.  There are various different theories of motivation that are often used to describe what motivates workers, how to increase motivation, and how to avoid things that decrease employee motivation. 

Your analysis needs....

1. The Influence of Cognitive Distortions on Mental Health:

- How do cognitive distortions, such as catastrophising, overgeneralisation, and black-and-white thinking, contribute to the development and maintenance of mental health issues like anxiety, depression, and PTSD?
- Explore the role of cognitive restructuring techniques in challenging and modifying dysfunctional thought patterns, thereby improving mental health outcomes.

2. Attachment Styles and Their Impact on Relationships:

- Elaborate on the different attachment styles, including secure, anxious-preoccupied, dismissive-avoidant, and fearful-avoidant, and their formation during childhood.
- Analyse the effects of attachment styles on romantic relationships, focusing on how they influence communication, trust, intimacy, and....