Enzymes are highly selective and substrate-specific catalysts that work by lowering activation energy for reactions thus increasing the rate of metabolic reactions. In enzymatic reactions, substrates are molecules binding onto enzymes' active sites to form enzyme-substrate complexes (Cornish-Bowden, 2004). Lactose is a disaccharide sugar commonly found in milk and lactase is the enzyme responsible for catalyzing lactose into its subsequent monosaccharide products; glucose and galactose. In line with this, lactose intolerance is the inability to digest lactose; lactose intolerant individuals have insufficient levels of lactase and symptoms include flatulence, diarrhea, rumbling stomach, and vomiting as well (Wilson, 2005).
There are several factors that affect enzymatic reactions. According to Dunaway-Mariano (2008), enzymatic activities are affected by temperature, pressure, chemical environment such as pH, and substrate concentration as well (Dunaway-Mariano, 2008). To determine the optimal conditions for enzymatic activity, the enzyme, lactase was tested under four conditions; different temperatures, pH, substrates, and with/without…...

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References

Cornish-Bowden, A. (2004). Fundamentals of Enzyme Kinetics. Portland Press.

Dunaway-Mariano, D. (2008). Enzyme Function Discovery. Structure, Vol.16 Issue 11, 1599-1600.

Fernandez, P., Canada, J.F., Jiminez-Barbero, J., & Martin-Lomas, M. (1995). Substrate Specificity of Small-Intestinal Lactase: Study of the Steric effects and Hydrogen Bonds involved in Enzyme-Substrate Interaction. Carbohydrate Research Volume 271, Issue 1, 31-42.

Naim, Y.H., Sterchi, E., & Lentze, M. (1987). Biosynthesis and Maturation of Lactase-Phlorizin Hydrolase in the Human Small Intestinal Epithelial Cells. Biochemical Journal Vol. 241 No. 2, 427-434.

Lipases digest fat and fat soluble vitamins. Enzyme.com reports, "Lipase deficient people have decreased cell permeability, meaning nutrients cannot get in and the waste cannot get out of the cell. For example, diabetics are lipase deficient and cannot get glucose into their cells, and wastes or unwanted substances cannot get out." Heart disease can come from this.

Cellulase deficiency can lead to sugar or gluten intolerance. Enzyme.com writes, "Cellulase deficiency is a malabsorption syndrome (impaired absorption of nutrients, vitamins, or minerals from the diet by the lining of the small intestine) with its many symptoms of lower abdominal gas, pain, bloating and problems associated with the jejunum and pancreas as well as nervous system conditions such as ell's Palsy, Tic and facial neuralgia."

Ethnicity can be related to deficiencies of the body. Emedicine.medscape.com (2010) reports, "Congenital sucrase-isomaltase deficiency is most common in Canadian Eskimos and natives of Greenland. They cannot breakdown sucrose…...

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Bibliography

Enzymes.com. (2010). "Enzyme deficiencies" Retrieved on April 19, 2010 from http://www.enzymes.com/enzyme_deficiencies.html

Emedicine.medscape.com. (2010). Retrieved on April 19, 2010 from  http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/931041-overview

Acidic Fluid on Enzymatic Activity
The aim of the experiment is to investigate the effect of an acidic fluid on enzymatic activity.

Enzymes are the class of molecules referred as proteins having one or more chains of amino acids, which are joined together by peptide bonds. The role of an enzyme is to speed up or catalyze the chemical reactions as well as reducing the amount of energy that an enzyme needs to enhance a chemical reaction. (Al-Hakimi, 2008). In other words, enzymes are the protein molecules found in living cell used to speed up a reaction in the cell. Catalyze is an example of an enzyme found on liver and potato. However, the level of enzyme activity is affected by factors such as PH, temperature and salinity. (El-Beltagin, Mohamed, Mekki, et al. 2011). For example, PH has the ability to affect the state of ionization of basic or acidic of…...

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Reference

Al-Hakimi A.M.A. (2008). Effect of salicylic acid on biochemical changes in wheat plants under khat leaves residues. Plant Soil Environ, 54: 288 -- 293.

El-Beltagin H. S., Mohamed, A. A., Mekki, B., et al. (2011). Differences in some constituents, enzymes activity and electrophoretic characterization of different rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) cultivars. Tom. XVIII (1): 45-52.

Lin, K. Zhang, Q. Lu, Z. et al. (2015). Effects of suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid on rat

cytochrome P450 enzyme activities. Int J. Clin Exp Pathol. 8(5):5584-5590

Doctor Determine Treatment for a Diagnosis of Hereditary Fructose Intolerance:
Explain how enzymes are involved in processes such as the breakdown of fructose.

The enzymes work as a lock and key process where the relevetn active part of the enzyme fits into the substrate (i.e. The molecule on which the enzyme acts) and activates it. There are various active sites on the enzyme and only the enzyme that will 'fit' in the substrate will work. After part of enzyme matching with substrate, enzyme breaks down substrate into two smaller products.

The following image illustrates:

(adapted from http://waynesword.palomar.edu/molecu1.htm)

At times the process can be blocked by an impediment that stops the 'key' from 'turning, as happens in the case of a lack in aldolase B. which can prompt hereditary fructose intolerance

Explain how a deficiency in aldolase B. can be responsible for hereditary fructose intolerance.

Hereditary fructose intolerance is a disease that disable the individual from consuming…...

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Sources

Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L. (2002) Biochemistry. 5th edition. New York: WH Freeman

Cross NC, de Franchis R, Sebastio G, et al. (1990). Molecular analysis of aldolase B. genes in hereditary fructose intolerance. Lancet 335 (8685): 306 -- 9

Huntington's Disease Outreach Project for Education at Stanford Coenzyme Q10: An Antioxidant Drug

 http://www.stanford.edu/group/hopes/treatmts/antiox/ceq1.html

Biology
Explain how enzymes are involved in processes such as the breakdown of fructose.

Enzymes are integral to processes such as the breakdown of fructose, a monosaccharide. Thus, a deficiency in enzymes can cause malabsorption of fructose or other sugars. Chemically, enzymes are complex proteins. Some enzymes like fructokinase transform molecules into available energy via processes of metabolism. For example, fructokinase and aldolase B. are enzymes involved in the breakdown of fructose. Any imbalance or absence of these and other enzymes can lead to fructose intolerance in the person, leading to a number of medical symptoms. When fructose cannot be metabolized by enzymes, it may lead to reduced absorption of water in the intestines, which in turn may lead to "bloating, diarrhoea or constipation, flatulence, and stomach pain due to muscle spasms. (Breakspear Medical Group, n.d.).

Found throughout the human body, enzymes can be considered to be chemical catalysts that convert substances like…...

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References

Breakspear Medical Group (n.d.). Fructose metabolism -- acumen. Retrieved online:  http://www.breakspearmedical.com/files/documents/fructosemetabolism230910_AM_.pdf 

"Citric Acid Cycle Summary." Retrieved online:  http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/612citricsum.html 

"Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, and other Energy-Releasing Pathways," (n.d.). Retrieved online:  http://www.uic.edu/classes/bios/bios100/lecturesf04am/lect12.htm 

United Mitochondrial Disease Foundation (n.d.). What is mitochondrial disease? Retrieved online:  http://www.umdf.org/site/c.8qKOJ0MvF7LUG/b.7934627/k.3711/What_is_Mitochondrial_Disease.htm

Temperature on Enzyme Activity
Tube 2, #4: Place the tube in an incubator (or water bath) at 37 degree centigrade. After 15 minutes, what change do you now observe?

After 15 minutes the milk became partially solid.

Tube 3, #4: Add three drops of warmed rennin and return the tube to an incubator (or water bath) at 37 degree centigrade. After 15 minutes, what change do you now observe?

After 15 minutes, the milk remains liquid with no solidifying taking place.

Table 5.1 Rennin Experiment

Tube Results Explanation

Refrigerated rennin - (tube 2) 0 Enzyme not active at low temperature.

Warmed rennin - (tube 1) ++ Enzyme effective at 37c temperature.

Boiled rennin - (tube 3) 0 Enzyme not active at high temperature,

Enzyme denatured at high temperature.

Graph: Effect of Temperature on Enzyme Activity.

Laboratory Review

What happens at the active site of an enzyme?

The active site is the region of the enzyme where the substrate binds and where the chemical…...

Acid Denaturation of Catalase
The enzyme catalase is an integral component of endogenous antioxidant defenses in both plants (Blokhina, Virolainen, and Fagerstedt, 2003) and animals (Hermes-Lima and Zeneno-Savin, 2002). These defenses are required to keep reactive oxygen species (OS) in check, otherwise accumulation would result in harm to cells and tissue. OS species include the superoxide radical (O2), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hydroxyl radical (HO), singlet oxygen, ozone, lipid peroxides, and nitric oxide. However, under conditions of oxidative stress, OS species can accumulate and threaten cellular and tissue health. For example, hypoxia causes H2O2 to accumulate in the roots and leaves of some plants (reviewed by Blokhina, Virolainen, and Fagerstedt, 2003) and in mammalian cells, over 100 genes involved in antioxidant defense are induced (reviewed by Hermes-Lima and Zeneno-Savin, 2002).

Some enzymes are able to withstand extreme conditions, in terms of pH and temperatures. Although catalase activity has been studied extensively in the…...

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References

Blokhina, Olga, Virolainen, Eija, and Fagerstedt, Kurt V. (2003). Antioxidants, oxidative damage and oxygen deprivation stress: A review. Annals of Botany, 91, 179-194.

Goldblith, Samuel A. And Proctor, Bernard E. (1950). Photometric determination of catalase activity. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 187(2), 705-709.

Hermes-Lima, Marcelo and Zeneno-Savin, Tania. (2002). Animal response to drastic changes in oxygen availability and physiological oxidative stress. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C, 133, 537-556.

Macherey-Nagel. (2011). Quantofix Peroxide 1000: Quick and easy determination of peroxide. MN-Net.com. Retrieved 5 Oct. 2012 from  http://www.mn-net.com/tabid/10332/default.aspx .

Amidation of Peptides in Humans
Modern biotechnology has experienced dramatic leaps in the body of knowledge concerning molecular processes in peptides and how they work. Many of these processes rely on amidation of peptides to achieve increasingly important medical and commercial applications. Peptides are created when two or more amino acids are covalently joined by peptide bonds, a process termed post-translational modification. One increasingly valuable application of post-translational modification is amidation. This paper provides an overview of peptides and their role in biological processes, how amidation of peptides works and its importance, and a description of the two functional domains of the PAM enzyme (PHM and PAL) and the roles they play in amidation. An assessment of whether amidation prevents C-terminal degradation is followed by a discussion of which peptides/proteins are susceptible to C-terminal degredation by carboxypeptidase. An analysis of whether E. coli can be modified to perform amidation will…...

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References

Allen, J.M. (1963). The nature of biological diversity. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Audesirk, T. & Audesirk, G. (1993). Biology: Life on Earth, 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Bradbury, A.F. & Smyth, D.G. (1988). Biosynthesis of peptide neurotransmitters: studies on the formation of peptide amides. Physiol Bohemoslov, 37(3), 267-74.

Brighton, P.J., Szekeres, P.G. & Willars, G.B. (2004). Neuromedin U. And Its Receptors: Structure, Function, and Physiological Roles. Pharmacological Review, 56, 231-248.

For the temperature portion of the investigation (conducted first), eight test tubes were placed in four temperature controlled water baths ranging from water and crushed ice (2( C) to near boiling (98(). The other baths were kept at room temperature (23( C) and an intermediary between this and boiling (75( C). Test tubes were left in the baths for ten minutes, until their temperatures at equalized. Starting with the coldest bath, the amylase mixture was poured into the starch solution and briefly stirred. Leaving the test tube in the bath, a single drop was removed every ten seconds using a plastic pipette and placed into a well containing the iodine solution. When the color remained orange, the reaction had been completed, and the time (i.e. length of reaction) was noted. This same process was repeated with the other three sets of test tubes at the other temperatures, washing and…...

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References

Allsands. (2007). "Amylase Enzyme: The Effects Of Temperature." Accessed 11 May 2009.  http://www.allsands.com/science/amylaseenzymeh_wpp_gn.htm 

Nuffiled. (2009). "Investigating the effect of pH on amylase activity." Accessed 11 May 2009.  http://www.practicalbiology.org/areas/intermediate/bio-molecules/factors-affecting-enzyme-activity/investigating-the-effect-of-ph-on-amylase-activity,51,EXP.html 

Worthington. (2009). "Introduction to enzymes." Accessed 11 May 2009.  http://www.worthington-biochem.com/introbiochem/lifeProcesses.html 

Transcription is a process that genetic information on the DNA copies into NA and the DNA acts as the template for the new molecules of NA. Transcription process begins with the DNA double helix unwinding as the hydrogen bonds holding the opposing bases breaks and the DNA strands are uncoupled. The process occurs within the cytoplasm of a prokaryote and in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Transcription process consists of three steps; initiation, elongation, termination, and are regulated by transcription factors that include protein products of the genes. The protein products regulate at postranscriptional levels every time.
Initiation of transcription begins with enzyme NA polymerase that identifies and attaches to DNA at the promoter and transcription of the DNA template starts. An initiation complex forms by association of 50 proteins different from each other required by NA polymerase II. NA polymerase synthesizes polynucleotides of NA from the template of DNA.…...

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References

Latchman, D. (2009). Eukoryotic Transcription Process. New York: Cengage Learning.

Alvis, F. (2010). New Approach to Translation Process. Chicago: Chicago University Press.

Singer, M. (2011). Genes and Genomes. New York: Cengage Learning.

Campbell, M. (2009). Biochemistry. London: Oxford University Press.

Lipids and Proteins
Lipids

Lipids are fats and they are important to our health. When chemically digesting these lipids or fats, these molecules are broken down into smaller ones that can be more readily passed through the digestive system and into the bloodstream. This fat is transformed into triglycerides and can be used by the body for energy at a later time.

Lipids like almost all food is first mechanically digested by the mouth. During this process the first chemical reaction begins when the saliva begins to break down the fat. As the fat is digested, enzymes called lipases within the mouth and stomach break the bonds of the lipid molecules an prepare them for absorption. The gall bladder and pancreas becomes involved in this process as bile salts are released from these organs and secreted in the small intestine. These chemicals signal to further digest the food by breaking down the molecules…...

Heart Disease
elationship between cardiac arrest and coronary cardiac disease

The heart is an essential organ in the human body, it keeps the individual alive. Understanding how the heart operates and functions is essential to help protect your heart from heart disease. Cardiac arrest and coronary heart disease are significant heart related illness that has a high mortality rate. It is important for individuals with pre-existing heart disease to understand the symptoms of cardiac arrest and coronary heart disease, since these are both leading causes of fatality in the United States. Understanding how the heart works, the individuals risk for heart disease, and how to prevent or delay heart disease is essential. In this paper I will address the relationship between cardiac arrest and coronary heart disease. I will also explain how the heart functions and discuss some ways of preventing cardiac arrest and coronary heart disease.

Cardiac Arrest

Cardiac arrest is a condition…...

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References

Antonini-Canterin et. al. (2009). Association between carotid and coronary artery disease in patients with aortic valve stenosis: an angiographic study. Angiology 60 (5) 596-600

CDC. (2010). Heart disease. Retrieved from  http://www.cdc.gov/heartdisease/ 

Dewey et. al. (2004). Coronary artery disease: new insights and their implications for radiology. European Radiology. 14 (6) 1048-1054

Escolar et. al. (2006). New imaging techniques for diagnosing coronary artery disease. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 174 (4) 487-495

Based on the results of these assays, S. flexneri can often be identified, although additional kits may be required. The simplest way, however, may be the novel approach through multiplex PCR (mRPC). It is possible to identify Shigella species through mPCR techniques by identifying pathogenicity islands associated with Shigella and S. flexneri.
6. How could you create a corn plant that would express the human protein fibrin? (You need to include techniques, steps, enzymes, etc.)

In order to create a corn plant that would express the human protein fibrin, scientists would first need to incorporate the human fibrin gene within the corn plant genome. The incorporated human gene would require regulation and promoter sequences that would function within the plant cell. Proper splicing sequences would also be required or removal of the introns altogether.

The delivery of transgenes into the corn plant could be accomplished through electroporation into corn protoplasts followed by…...

These cells have an enzyme on their surface that attracts fat. The number and distribution of adipose cells has a genetic component, and is usually determined in early childhood.
Describe the major metabolic diseases associated with lipid metabolism, transport and storage for humans?

Diseases associated with lipid metabolism, transport and storage included: high cholesterol, combined hyperlipidemia, familial hypercholesterolemia, high density lipoprotein, and hypertriglyceridemia,

How do unsaturated and saturated fatty acids differ from each other?

Saturated fats contain carbon atoms with a single bond between them and as many hydrogen atoms as possible bonded to the carbon atoms. Saturated fats contain carbon atoms with a double bond, and can therefore absorb more hydrogen atoms. Healthy diets are low in saturated fats, since they raise blood cholesterol levels.

What are the roles of Essential Fatty Acids (EFA) in humans?

There are two essential fatty acids: the omega-3 fatty acids and the moega-6 fatty acids. The roles of…...

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References

No Author Given (2007). Intestinal Uptake of Lipids, retrieved 6/20/2007 at http://web.indstate.edu/thcme/mwking/lipoproteins.html.

No Author Give (2007) Enzymes and Digestion of Lipids, retrieved 6/20/2007 at  http://www.afs.ttu.edu/home/swkim/ANSC3301/001/11%20Lipid-Dig-001.pdf 

No Author Given (2007). Lipids - 1, retrieved 6/20/2007 at  http://scidiv.bcc.ctc.edu/rkr/Biology130/lectures/pdfs/lipids130.pdf

(1989). These researchers investigated skeletal muscle adaptations in response to acclimatization at high altitude. Samples of muscle extracted before reaching high altitude and after returning to sea-level showed that maximal activities of enzymes, such as those representative of beta-oxidation, were unchanged. However, after exposure to extremely high altitude hypoxic conditions, reductions were observed in succinic dehydrogenase, citrate synthetase and hexokinase. The findings of this study did not support the researchers' hypothesis that extremely hypoxic conditions elicit changes that are adaptive toward maximizing oxidative function at the intracellular level (Green et al., 1989).
eference

Donoghue, S., Fatemian, M., Balanos, G.M., Crosby, A., Liu, C., O'Connor, D., Talbot, N.P., obbins, P.A. "Ventilatory Acclimatization in esponse to Very Small Changes in PO2 in Humans." Journal of Applied Physiology 98 (2005): 1587-91.

Green, H.J., Sutton, J.., Cymerman, A., Young, P.M., Houston, C.S. "Operation Everest II: Adaptations in Human Skeletal Muscle." Journal of Applied Physiology 66.5 (1989):…...

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Reference

Donoghue, S., Fatemian, M., Balanos, G.M., Crosby, A., Liu, C., O'Connor, D., Talbot, N.P., Robbins, P.A. "Ventilatory Acclimatization in Response to Very Small Changes in PO2 in Humans." Journal of Applied Physiology 98 (2005): 1587-91.

Green, H.J., Sutton, J.R., Cymerman, A., Young, P.M., Houston, C.S. "Operation Everest II: Adaptations in Human Skeletal Muscle." Journal of Applied Physiology 66.5 (1989): 2454-61.

Hoppeler, H., Vogt, M. "Muscle Tissue Adaptations to Hypoxia." The Journal of Experimental Biology 204 (2001): 3133-9.

Hoppeler, H., Vogt, M., Weibel, E.R., Fluck, M. "Response of Skeletal Muscle Mirochondria to Hypoxia." Experimental Physiology 88.1 (2003): 109-19.

Thesis Statement: Breastfeeding offers substantial benefits for both mothers and infants, promoting optimal health outcomes and fostering a unique bond between them. Its advantages range from providing essential nutrients to reducing the risk of diseases and enhancing cognitive development in infants, while also providing health benefits and convenience for mothers.

Introduction:

The practice of breastfeeding has been recognized as a fundamental aspect of parenting, providing infants with the optimal nutrition they need to thrive. This thesis delves into the multitude of benefits breastfeeding offers to both mothers and their infants, highlighting the positive impact it can have on health, development, and emotional....

Pathophysiology of Rheumatoid Arthritis

Introduction
Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by inflammation of the synovial joints, leading to progressive joint damage and disability. The pathophysiology of RA involves a complex interplay of genetic, environmental, and immunological factors.

Genetic Susceptibility
Genetic factors play a significant role in the development of RA. The most strongly associated genetic risk factor is the human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-DRB1 gene, particularly the shared epitope alleles (e.g., DRB10401). These alleles are present in approximately 60-70% of RA patients and increase the risk of disease by 20-40 times.

Environmental Triggers
Certain environmental triggers, such as smoking, periodontitis, and exposure to....

Methods for Detecting Burkholderia Cepacia in Water in Pharmaceutical Literature
Introduction
Burkholderia cepacia is a Gram-negative bacterium that can cause serious infections in immunocompromised individuals. It is often found in water, soil, and plants, and can contaminate pharmaceutical products, such as intravenous fluids and medications. Detecting B. cepacia in water is essential for ensuring the safety of these products.
Culture-Based Methods
Culture-based methods are the traditional approach for detecting B. cepacia in water. These methods involve growing the bacteria on a selective culture medium, such as Burkholderia cepacia selective agar (BCSA). BCSA contains antibiotics that inhibit the growth of other bacteria, allowing B. cepacia....

Antibacterial Properties of Silver Nanoparticles from Euphorbia: A Literature Review
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have gained significant attention for their potent antibacterial properties. Euphorbia, a diverse genus of flowering plants, has emerged as a promising source for synthesizing AgNPs. This review investigates the antibacterial properties of AgNPs derived from Euphorbia species, summarizing the key findings reported in scientific literature.
1. Synthesis of AgNPs from Euphorbia
AgNPs from Euphorbia are typically synthesized using plant extracts or biological components. The reducing agents present in the extracts, such as flavonoids, terpenoids, and reducing sugars, facilitate the reduction of silver ions to form AgNPs. The particle size, shape,....