Enlightenment worldview is the root of the "liberal social order," and is predicated on the belief in "the natural unfolding of human progress," (Kagan, 2012). Preceded by a Church-dominated orthodoxy, the Enlightenment directly threatened the political power of the Church, the main cause of rising fundamentalism in the defense of orthodoxy. However, the relationship between religion and the Enlightenment was not one of direct contract and opposition to create two binaries in the European consciousness. In fact, "recent studies of the Enlightenment suggest that its relation to religion is far more complex than a simple process of increasing secularization," (The German History Society, 2007, p. 422). One example of how the Enlightenment ironically bolstered, or at least reshaped, orthodoxy, was via the accessibility of the Bible due to the Gutenberg printing press. Making the Bible available in the common English and German languages, readable by a substantial portion of the…...

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References

The German History Society (2007). Religion and the Enlightenment: A review essay. German History 25(3): 422-432

Henrie, M.C. (2002). Opposing strains. Retrieved online:  http://www.mmisi.org/MA/44_01/henrie.pdf 

Kagan, R. (2012). The end of history. Review by Francis P. Sempa. American Diplomacy. Retrieved online:  http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/item/2008/0406/iar/iar_endof.html

Enlightenment and Scientific Method
Robert Hollinger, in his essay "hat is the Enlightenment?," notes the centrality of science to the "Enlightenment project," as he defines it, offering as one of the four basic tenets that constitute the "basic ideas of the Enlightenment" the view that "only a society based on science and universal values is truly free and rational: only its inhabitants can be happy." (Smith 1998, p. 71). As Smith (1998) says generally about the Enlightenment period, "Scientific knowledge came to be seen as an instrument for securing control over the human condition and for making it better." (p. 56).

But to what degree did the Enlightenment have an actual effect on science and its practice? I will look at three areas -- the philosophes, the "science of man," and the Deist religion -- in order to define how the Enlightenment culture affected the development of the scientific method.

Smith notes that…...

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Works Cited

Henry, John. (2004). "Science and the Coming of Enlightenment." In Fitzpatrick, Martin; Jones, Peter; Knellwolf, Christa; and McCalman, Ian (Eds.) The Enlightenment World. New York: Routledge.

Israel, Jonathan I. (2006). Enlightenment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man 1670-1752. New York: Oxford University Press.

Jimack, Peter. (1996). "The French Enlightenment I: science, materialism and determinism." In Brown, Stuart (Ed.) Routledge History of Philosophy Volume V: British Philosophy and the Age of Enlightenment. New York: Routledge.

Knellwolf, Christa. (2004). "The Science of Man." In Fitzpatrick, Martin; Jones, Peter; Knellwolf, Christa; and McCalman, Ian (Eds.) The Enlightenment World. New York: Routledge.

As far as the philosophy of Montesquieu, it is crucial to note that the principle of the checks and balances of the governmental branches was also included in the Constitution. The Framers also adopted Rousseau's idea that the power of the social contract is directly derived from the people. This is best illustrated by the introduction of the Constitution: "We the People of the United tates, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution of the United tates of America." Even though the Anti-Federalists support movements of the Bill of Rights were based on their firm belief that the Constitution had to lay down the rules for common-law procedures in criminal cases, their contribution to the adoption of the…...

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Sources

Burdick, Charles K. The Law of the American Constitution: Its Origin and Development. G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1922: 3-33.

Kenyon, Cecelia M. "Men of Little Faith: The Anti-Federalists on the Nature of Representative Government." The William and Mary Quarterly 12.1 (Jan. 1955): 3-43.

Kirk, Linda. "The Matter of Enlightenment." The Historical Journal 43.4 (Dec., 2000): 1129-1143.

Porter, Roy. The Enlightenment. 2nd ed. Palgrave Macmillan, 2001.

Enlightenment is the term given to a historical era in the eighteenth century, roughly, that falls between the Scientific evolution and the American and French evolutions. As befits an epoch that followed the Scientific evolution, the chief hallmark of the Enlightenment was a faith in reason and rationality -- the basic notion was that the scientific progress achieved by Sir Isaac Newton meant that the human mind might be capable of understanding all things in the same way. Accordingly, Babcock notes that another commonly used term for the Enlightenment is "the Age of eason" (Babcock 221).
Because America was founded during the Enlightenment, there are plenty of traces of Enlightenment modes of thinking available in America today, built into the American system from its inception. Babcock notes (for example) that the rationalistic "Neoclassical" style of art popular during the Enlightenment was exemplified in architecture by the designs of Thomas Jefferson (Babcock…...

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References

Babcock, MA. (2011). The story of Western culture. Lynchburg: HPS Publishing.

Enlightenment
In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, a scientific revolution occurred which gave humankind a much better understanding of the universe and its functioning than ever before. One of those scientists was Isaac Newton, who, in addition to his work with gravitational laws, also developed principles of light and refraction. From this revolution in science came an intellectual and cultural movement who's name came from a metaphor based in Newton's experiments with light. Called the "Enlightenment," this movement worshipped the practical and marveled in the applied, and changed not only Europe, but the entire world. The Enlightenment took principles learned through scientific observation and study, and applied them to everyday life including such things as medicine, politics, nature, religion, literature, and others. The application of these principles in the real world gave rise to the modern world and its notions of democracy, economics, religion, international affairs, and almost every…...

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References

Jacob, Margaret. (2001). The Enlightenment: A Brief History with Documents. Boston,

MA: Bedford/St. Martins. Print.

Interestingly, it his Siddhartha's desire to leave the Brahmin world that starts his quest, and a Brahmin word that starts him on the path to completion. Siddhartha has come full circle to find his path to enlightenment.
This moment of revelation is followed by one of horror brought on by total and complete self-awareness, and the Siddhartha passes out. He awakes from a deep sleep, "and it seemed to him as if his entire long sleep had been nothing but a long meditative recitation of Om," and he is renewed with the simple and profound joy of life and love for all things living (Hesse, Chapter 8). Siddhartha realizes that this was his "sickness;" he had simply been unable to love anything for some time, but after his moment of wretchedness this love comes flooding back to him. The changes he makes at this point are completely internal. Though he…...

Hence De Gouges' of the notion of bastards, even to express the relationship of male to female in the once supposedly sacred institution of wedlock.
In the social contract proposed by De Gouges, human relationships between males and females become 'in kind' or communal. "Liberty consists in the freedom to do everything which injures no one else; hence the exercise of the natural rights of each man has no limits except those which assure to the other members of the society the enjoyment of the same rights" -- a quasi-socialist idea of the perfectibility of human society because of the perfectibility of the individual is suggested in these words from the "Declaration of the Rights of Man" and its assertion of a communal good, but De Gouges takes this even farther. She writes: "e intend and wish to make our wealth communal, meanwhile reserving to ourselves the right to divide…...

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Works Cited

De Gouges. "The Declaration of the Rights of Women." 1791. The Internet Modern

History Sourcebook. [24 Nov 2006]  http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1791degouge1.html 

The Declaration of the Rights of Man." 1789. The Avalon Project. [24 Nov 2006]  http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/rightsof.htm

.. The pre-Aryan inhabitants of the Italian soil, whose complexion formed the clearest feature of distinction from the dominant blondes, namely, the Aryan conquering race:... good, noble, clean, but originally the blonde-haired man in contrast to the dark black-haired aboriginals" ("Nietzsche on Race and Sex." VC Philosophy Home Page, 2004). Superiority and the idea that some laws apply to only some people were taken to the extreme in the mind of Adolf Hitler and his attempt to build a super race, and a nation where Aryans were encouraged to 'breed' and other racial groups were annihilated. Nietzsche wished to create a world without rules, so everyone could exercise his or her maximum potential, but he believed some races had greater tendencies to embody the qualities of the superman and were more capable of living freely and creatively.
Most of the philosophers believed that human nature can be improved? hy was Sigmund…...

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Works Cited

Bradley, Derek "Nietzsche." 2007. Michigan State University Philosophy Page.

30 Apr 2007.  http://www.msu.edu/user/bradle45/nietzsche.htm 

Cassidy, David. 2007. "Implications of Uncertainty." Association of International

Physicists. 30 Apr 2007.  http://www.aip.org/history/heisenberg/p08c.htm

Revolution could never be warranted under Hobbes' scheme; the contract implied that the sovereign power could do no wrong as it had been given full right to act for the populous. Locke took parts of the social contract theory, but had a far more liberal approach. He believed, like Hobbes, that the reason for the establishment of a government or any sort of civil society was to find a way to resolve conflicts and defend life, health, liberty, and property without resorting to mere physical force. This stemmed from Locke's belief that humans were inherently ruled by reason, even if it was selfish reason. This also led him to the belief that revolution was not only permissible, but in some cases even obligated. When governments no longer performed what they were reasonably formed to accomplish, it made no sense to keep them.
Robespierre took this philosophy to extreme lengths in…...

Rather, corruption continued and the widespread execution of revolutionaries by Maximilien Robespierre and Louis de Saint-Just of the Committee of Safety was largely justified with the radicalized views of Enlightenment philosopher Rousseau with regard to the revolution (Church; Lefebvre; Rude). Robespierre's distorted perception of Rousseau's views lead to an adamant and unwaivering desire to drive the revolution forward at any cost, including that of substantial human life. Robespierre was similarly influence by Rousseau to strive for the decree establishing the existence of a Supreme Being (Lefebvre; Rude; Church). These concepts of Rousseau-like deism that were modified and manipulated by Robespierre were an attempt to usurp Christian control over society (Torrey; Cassirer; Church; Lefebvre; Rude).
Ultimately, the Reign of Terror empowered the incumbent government to maintain political and social power within France and eventually the social uprising began to curtail (Rude; Lefebvre). Those revolutionaries who survived eventually attained significant enough level…...

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Works Cited

Cassirer, Ernst. The philosophy of the enlightenment. Princeton University Press, 1951.

Church, William Farr. The influence of the enlightenment on the French Revolution D.C. Heath, 1973.

Gay, Peter. The Enlightenment W.W. Norton & Company, 1995.

Israel, Jonathan Irvine. Radical Enlightenment. Oxford University Press, 2002.

Enlightenment Upon the Colonies
Enlightenment

As may be common knowledge by people raised, educated, and living in America for many years will know, during the American Enlightenment period, many people were inspired. There were ideas abound. It was an era of relative tolerance and humanist thinking. Documents such as the Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution were composed and ratified during this period as well. Clearly, the American Enlightenment is an important period in American history, but how did the European version that preceded it influence the thinking and the actions of the time in a place across the ocean? The European Enlightenment had begun during the mid-17th century and been going on before the colonies were the colonies and certainly before they were the United States. Fundamental to the European Enlightenment were ideals such the liberation the human mind, and the application of reason to behavior & religion.…...

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References:

Rahn, J. (2011). The Enlightenment. Available from:   2012 July 29.http://www.online-literature.com/periods/enlightenment.php .

Smith, N. (2011). The Influence of the Enlightenment on the Formation of the United States. Available from:   2012 July 30.http://www.articlemyriad.com/influence-enlightenment-formation-united-states/ .

hat is truly remarkable about Swift's novel is the fact that the protagonist rarely generates any kind of emotional response to what he encounters, and the adventures that befall him. In this sense, Swift's novel aims at challenging the norms, tradition, mentalities and institutions of English society by attempting to uncover what lies behind them.
Henry Fielding's novel Tom Jones was published in 1749, and is regarded as his most famous writing. The novel reflects many aspects of its author's life, with the main character being built as a reflection of Fielding himself. One of the most prominent themes of the novel is the opposition between two perspectives on virtue. Fielding creates characters such as Square and Thwackum who only theorize and invoke virtue, and others, such as Tom or Allworthy who practice it. In fact, this duality expresses Fielding's personal belief that virtue is synonymous to action. The first…...

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Works Cited

Benedict Barbara M. "Recent Studies in the Restoration and Eighteenth Century." Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900 42 (2002): 21-30.

Kirk, Linda. "The Matter of Enlightenment." The Historical Journal 43. 4 (Dec., 2000): 1129-1143.

Perry, Thomas Sergeant. English Literature in the Eighteenth Century. Harper and Brothers, 1883.

Grace Knudson Scientific Revolution, Enlightenment and Resultant Intellectuals Revolution
A massive exchange of information that shook older ways of thinking and created new conceptions is the Scientific Revolution that occurred between mid-sixteenth and early eighteenth centuries first starting in Europe. Rather than relying on the Church and other outside sources, the Scientific Revolution promoted human reasoning, which was applied to human affairs and the physical universe.
Institutions such as the Church, towns and cities, guilds, professional associations, and universities established mandates to regulate and control members. Emerging universities were neutral zones of intellectual autonomy where students could study freely without the regulations of the church. These universities educated many major figures of the scientific revolution: Copernicus from Poland, Galileo from Italy, and Newton in England; these creators of the revolution set themselves apart from the old viewpoints of the world.
Prior to the Scientific Revolution, Europeans viewed the world from Aristotle’s viewpoint: the Earth…...

17th century and our contemporary world began with an early, optimistic outlook of hope and promise of a better future, exemplified by movements like the Enlightenment, the Scientific and Industrial Revolutions, culminating in the Information Age, environmental awareness and globalisation. It is during this period that a paradigm shift from faith (religion) to reason as the principal source of legitimacy and authority occurred (Badger). The shift occurred against the backdrop of ideals such as science, tolerance, liberty, democracy, secularism, free will and humanism. However, the period is also scared with false starts and failures, violent schisms, world wars, imperialism, terrorism, irrational nationalism, extreme religious war, information overload, pollution and the threat of nuclear annihilation that indicate failure of the rational model promised by the Enlightenment. On the premise of this dichotomy of hope and failure, this essay critically demonstrates the failure of the Enlightenment project, especially from a social and…...

orks Cited

Baumgarten, Linda. (2002). hat Clothes Reveal: The Language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal America: The Colonial illiamsburg Collection. New Haven, CT: Yale University

Press.

Bilhartz, Terry D., and Elliott, Alan C. (2007). Currents in American History: A Brief History of the United States, Volume 1. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.

Crunden, Robert Morse. (1996). A Brief History of American Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E.

Sharpe.

Fisher, John Hurt. (2001). "British and American, Continuity and Divergence" in the

Cambridge History of the English Language: English in North America, Eds. Hogg, Blake,

Algeo, Lass, and Burchfield. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Grigg, John a., and Mancall, Peter C. (2008). British Colonial America: People and Perspectives. estport, CT: ABC-CLIO.

Horsman, Reginald. (1981). Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-

Saxonism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Jandt, Fred Edmund (2007). An Introduction to Intercultural Communication: Identities in a Global Community. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Ryken, Leland. (2010). orldly Saints: The Puritans as They…...

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Works Cited

Baumgarten, Linda. (2002). What Clothes Reveal: The Language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal America: The Colonial Williamsburg Collection. New Haven, CT: Yale University

Press.

Bilhartz, Terry D., and Elliott, Alan C. (2007). Currents in American History: A Brief History of the United States, Volume 1. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.

Crunden, Robert Morse. (1996). A Brief History of American Culture. Armonk, NY: M.E.

I. Introduction
A. Definition of the Human Condition
B. Importance of Studying the Human Condition
C. Thesis Statement: Exploring key aspects of the human condition and their significance in shaping human existence.

II. Historical Perspectives on the Human Condition
A. Ancient Philosophical Views (e.g., Aristotle, Plato)
B. Medieval and Renaissance Perspectives (e.g., Thomas Aquinas, Machiavelli)
C. Enlightenment Thinkers (e.g., Rousseau, Hobbes)

III. Psychological Dimensions of the Human Condition
A. Human Emotions and Behavior
B. Cognitive Processes and Perceptions
C. Impact of Social and Environmental Factors

IV. Existential and Philosophical Views
A. Existentialism: Meaning and Purpose
B. Absurdity and Anxiety in Human Existence
C.....

I. Introduction
A. Brief overview of the history of corrections
B. Importance of understanding the historical perspective on corrections

II. Ancient and Medieval Times
A. Origins of corrections in ancient civilizations
B. Use of punishment and retribution in medieval Europe
C. Evolution of correctional institutions during the Middle Ages

III. The Enlightenment Era
A. Influence of Enlightenment ideals on corrections
B. Emergence of reformative approaches in corrections
C. The role of punishment and rehabilitation in the Enlightenment era

IV. The Industrial Revolution
A. Impact of industrialization on corrections
B. Development of modern prison systems
C. Changes in correctional practices during the Industrial....

1. The Struggle for Autonomy: The Impact of British Colonial Policies on Colonial Identity

Discuss the British policies that restricted colonial autonomy, such as the Navigation Acts and the Stamp Act.
Analyze how these policies fostered a sense of collective grievance and the desire for independence.
Examine the ways in which colonists resisted British control through boycotts, protests, and the formation of political organizations.

2. The Economic Foundations of the American Colonies: Agriculture, Trade, and Manufacturing

Describe the various agricultural practices and products that formed the backbone of the colonial economy.
Trace the development of trade networks between the colonies and....

I. Introduction
A. Explanation of the significance of "The Cathedral" as a short story by Raymond Carver
B. Brief overview of the main themes and characters in the story

II. Summary of "The Cathedral"
A. Description of the protagonist, the narrator, and his interactions with Robert, the blind man
B. Analysis of the narrator's initial prejudice and ignorance towards Robert
C. Discussion of the transformative experience the narrator has while drawing with Robert

III. Analysis of Themes
A. Theme of prejudice and ignorance
1. Examination of the narrator's initial misconceptions about blindness and his personal growth
B. Theme of communication and understanding
....