Diabetes Mellitus
According to the World Diabetes Foundation, diabetes mellitus is considered to be the fastest growing chronic condition in the world (Chorbev et al., 2011). The diabetes epidemic afflicted an estimated 285 million people in 2010, equivalent to 6.4% of the adult population of the world. Since diabetes is largely a preventable condition, public health efforts must be directed at primary care centered on awareness and education regarding, causes, risk factors, prevention, and treatment for diabetes. However, there remains a discrepancy between the direction public health should be heading and the current state of health care. The following discussion outlines the necessity for public health change, how it can be implemented, as well as theoretical bases for the projected success of change and progress for public health models involved in diabetes awareness, prevention, and care.

Creative tension is essentially a conflict between different or opposing viewpoints or approaches regarding an issue.…...

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References

Chorbev, I., Sotirovska, M., Mihajlov, D. (2011). Virtual communities for diabetes chronic disease healthcare. International Journal of Telemedicine and Applications, published online 2011 November 3. doi: 10.1155/2011/721654.

Harch, S., Reeve, D., Reeve, C. (2012). Management of type 2 diabetes: a community partnership approach. Australian Family Physician, 41(1/2), 73-6.

van Gils, P.F., Lambooij, M.S., Flanderijn, M.H.W., van den Berg, M., de Wit, G.A., Schuit, A.J., Struijs, J.N. (2011). Willingness to participate in a lifestyle intervention program of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a conjoint analysis. Patient Preference and Adherence, 5, 537-46.

Frequent symptoms of either hypo or hyperglycemia may occur, but if symptoms are unknown to the woman may be associated with normal pregnancy announces and not followed up on. "The severity of the symptoms and the rate at which they develop may differ, depending on the type of diabetes." (Clark, 2004, p. 3) Increased urine production, glucose in the blood and urine, ketones (undigested protein) in the blood or urine, increased number of infections and decreased or limited healing of such infections, weight loss, or weight gain and occasionally (in extreme cases) numbness and/or tingling in extremities and vision disturbances are all symptoms of diabetes but as one can see from the list if such changes occur during pregnancy they could be attributed to normal pregnancy related changes, unless they become severe.
Particular attention should be paid to hypoglycemia and ketosis. Blood sugar control is essential, even in the first…...

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References

Childhood Obesity and Early Onset of Adult Diseases. (2005). JOPERD -- the Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 76(7), 4.

Clark, M. (2004). Understanding Diabetes. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Edelwich, J., & Brodsky, a. (1998). Diabetes: Caring for Your Emotions as Well as Your Health. Reading, MA: Perseus Books.

Feinbloom, R.I. (2000). Pregnancy, Birth, and the Early Months: The Thinking Woman's Guide (3rd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing.

Diabetes Concept
Concept Map: Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

Pathology

Aetilogy

Pathophysiology

Pathogenesis

isk Factors:

Weight, ace,

Inactivity, Family history,

Fat distribution, Age

Prevention:

Execrise, Eating habits,

egular checkups

Diagnosis:

Glycated hemoglobin

(A1C) test

andom or fasting blood sugar test

Oral glucose tolerance test

Structural Changes:

Potential brain structure changes

Myocardial degradation

Circulation changes

Possible amputation

Pancreatic changes

Signs and Symptoms:

Increased thrist, Frequent

urination, Increased hunger,

Weight loss, Fatigue, Blurred

vision, Frequent infections,

Sores/slow healing, Darker skin

Prognosis:

If untreated: Heart disease,

Stroke, Kidney disease,

Dialysis, Blindness,

Amputation

Treatment

Blood sugar monitoring, Exercise,

Healthy eating habits,

Possible medications / insulin therapy

Functional Chnages:

Chnages to kidney function, Changes to pancreas function,

Pancreatic Changes

There are some pancreatic changes that have been associated with the onset of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus, especially the progressive failure of pancreatic beta-cells apparently as a response to insulin resistance and leading to under-production and a loss of pancreatic function (Feinglos & Bethel, 2008; Serrano, 2009). Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus can have a circular effect on the pancreas; though it is typically a structural and/or functional degradation in the pancreas that brings on Type 2 (as well as…...

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References

Feinglos, M. & Bethel, M. (2008). Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. New York: Springer.

Levene, S. & Donnelly, R. (2011). Management of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. New York: Elsevier.

Serrano, M. (2009). Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus. New York: Elsevier.

Diabetes Management
Diabetes mellitus is one of the non-communicable diseases that have continued to be in the forefront of public health challenges. Diabetes occurs when the body system is unable to produce sufficient insulin. Typically, insulin is a hormone secreted from the beta cell within the pancreases that regulates the blood sugar as well as assisting in conversion of glucose into energy. Diabetes occurs when there is high level of glucose in the blood, and when the body pancreas in unable to produce enough insulin.

Type 2 diabetes known as non- insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) accounts for more than 90% of diabetes globally. The type 2 diabetes occurs when a body is unable to produce sufficient insulin to overcome abnormality. There are three types of diabetes:

Type 1 diabetes,

Type 2 diabetes and Gestational diabetes.

Type 1 diabetes or insulin dependent diabetes is an autoimmune system where the diseases in the body attack the insulin…...

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References

Baker IDI (2012). Diabetes: The silent Pandemic and its Impact on Australia. Diabetes Australia.

Mcgraw-hill.(2009). Introduction to Pathophysiology. Mcgraw-hill Publication. UK.

Maple-Brown, L.J. Sinha, A.K. & Davis, E.A. (2010). Type 2 diabetes in indigenous Australian children and adolescents. J Paediatr Child Health, 46, 487-90

Mealey, B.L. (2010). Diabetes Pathophysiology. American Medical Network. Inc.

Type 2 diabetes, and its association with obesity, changes this relationship somewhat. Individuals with Type 2 diabetes typically have poor eating and exercise habits that contribute to the development of their disease, and these same risk factors also contribute to the risk for and progression of cardiovascular diseases and stroke (Mayo Clinic 2010; WebMD 2010). Though not necessarily directly related to diabetes their diabetes, these individuals have a much greater risk for heart attacks, strokes, cholesterol build-up in arteries, and a host of other cardiovascular diseases and conditions (Medline 2010; WebMD 2010). Still, with proper diet, exercise, and other methods for controlling the disease and correcting underlying conditions, much of this risk can be diminished or eliminated.

Treatment

As mentioned above, the primary treatment for diabetes is through proper dietary habits and monitoring of glucose levels, with the possibility of needing insulin injections. All of these treatments are aimed at keeping the…...

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References

Mayo Clinic. (2010). "Diabetes." Accessed 20 July 2010.  http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/diabetes/DS01121/DSECTION=causes 

Medline. (2010). "Diabetes." Accessed 20 July 2010.  http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001214.htm 

WebMD. (2010). "Diabetes." Accessed 20 July 2010.  http://diabetes.webmd.com/

Head injury, brain surgery, and brain tumor are potential causes of Central Diabetes Insipidus. Nephrogenic Diabetes Inspidus is far les common than Central Diabetes Inspipidus and is caused by kidney defects. Kidney disease, an X chromosomal abnormality, and certain pharmaceuticals such as lithium can cause Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus. Stopping the intake of culprit medications can often reverse Nephrogenic Diabetes Insipidus.
Symptoms of the different types of diabetes differ. Fatigue, excessive thirst, and excessive urination are symptoms in common to all forms of the disease. Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus symptoms may include nausea and vomiting, as well as weight loss in spite of high appetite. Symptoms of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus may also include male impotence and blurred vision. Diabetes Insipidus symptoms almost exclusively center on excessive thirst and urination, which can lead to secondary issues including dehydration.

Diabetes Mellitus is incurable and can only be treated. Lifestyle changes, especially diet and…...

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References

Diabetes Insipidus." Family Doctor.org. Retrieved Oct 18, 2006 at  http://familydoctor.org/048.xml 

Mathur, Ruchi. "Diabetes Mellitus." MedicineNet.com. Retrieved Oct 18, 2006 at  http://www.medicinenet.com/diabetes_mellitus/article.htm 

MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia: Diabetes." Retrieved Oct 18, 2006 at  http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001214.htm 

MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia: Diabetes Insipidus." Retrieved Oct 18, 2006 at  http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/000377.htm

Some patients feel helpless, hopeless, depressed, isolated from others, belittled, and do not know how to seek appropriate help from others (utter 2004). Socially supportive arrangements were addressed as the attributes of socially legitimate roles which provide for the meeting dependency needs without loss of esteem. Socially supportive environments were presented as pattern interpersonal relationships mediated through shared values and sentiments as well as facilitate the performance of social roles through which needs are met. In summation, social support has been defined as an intervening factor tied directly to the coping process (Pearson, 1986).
egardless of the differences in definition, social support has been the subject of medical and behavioral research for over two decades and the universal outcome has been that social support has therapeutic value in mental and physical health. The majority of studies have been correlational, and so statements about cause and effect remain tenuous. Nevertheless, it…...

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References

Equality and Diversity Awareness in Undergraduate Medical Education. 2007. 23 December.  http://www.thelancetstudent.com/2007/11/29/equality-and-diversity-awareness-in-undergraduate-medical-education/ 

The Implications of Cultural Diversity for Health Care Practice: an anthropological perspective 23 December 2007. http://www.arts.manchester.ac.uk/casas/papers/pdfpapers/healthcare.pdf

Implications of Cultural Diversity in Do Not Attempt Resuscitation (DNAR) Decision-Making. 2006 23 December 2007.  http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3919/is_200601/ai_n17182212 

Bridge, Caroline (1999). Religious Beliefs and Teenage Refusal of Medical

The symptoms are similar but type 2 can be more insidious as it is more commonly undiagnosed and could possibly have been prevented with early intervention lifestyle changes. Pain and reduced circulation in the extremities and/or long-term vision loss can also occur in type 2 as does permanent nerve damage in the eyes and extremities. Dependency on insulin is present in type 1 while in type 2 other pharmacological options and even simple lifestyle and diet changes can often suffice in the early stages of the disease, though many type 2 diabetics eventually become insulin dependant. (Clark, 2004, p. 4)
isk Factors

Ethnic minorities such as black, Asian, Pacific Islanders and Hispanic populations are more commonly effected by type 2 diabetes and type 1 diabetes but there is an increase in the Caucasian population. People who get type 2 diabetes are frequently overweight or obese, sedentary and can have other chronic…...

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References

ADA Website (2009) "The Dangerous Toll…"  http://www.diabetes.org/diabetes-statistics/dangerous-toll.jsp 

ADA Website (2009) "Diabetes Statistics"  http://www.diabetes.org/diabetes-statistics.jsp 

ADA Website (2009) "Total Prevalence"  http://www.diabetes.org/diabetes-statistics/prevalence.jsp 

Clark, M. (2004). Understanding Diabetes. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

The development of new antidiabetic agents -- for example, insulin analogs and incretin-based therapies -- has led to new treatment strategies that will allow those patients with Type 2 DM to achieve target HbA1c levels (2011). However, he notes that there are many factors that can interfere with the ability of some patients to reach metabolic targets (2011). Clinical data shows that HbA1c concentration, blood pressure, and serum levels of lipids in patients with Type 2 DM are progressively decreasing toward the target goals set by the American Diabetes Association (2011). These improvements in metabolic regulation have resulted in a 30-40% decrease in reported microvascular and macrovascular complications of DM in the United States (2011). Gastric bypass surgery in morbidly obese people with Type 2 DM leads to remission of the DM in the majority of patients and improvement in the rest of them (2011). A major contributor to…...

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References

American Diabetes Association. (2007). "Diabetes cost calculator." American Diabetes

Association. Accessed on March 11, 2011:

http://www.diabetesarchive.net/advocacy-and-legalresources/cost-of-diabetes.jsp

Lebovitz, H. (2003). Therapy for diabetes mellitus and related disorders. American Diabetes Association; 3rd edition.

The study found that triglycerides and low-density lipoprotein levels were significantly higher in patients with diabetes than in controls, while high-density lipoprotein levels were significantly lower in patients with diabetes. The researchers thus found that in Ethiopians with diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia occurs more frequently than in controls. Because of this, the researchers recommended periodic screening for dyslipidemia in all Ethiopian patients with diabetes. They also suggested the need for other studies to assess the potential negative effect of dyslipidemia and obesity on morbidity and mortality in Ethiopians with diabetes (Siraj et al. 706-710).
The rise in childhood obesity has been linked to a rise in diabetes both in childhood and in later life, leading to speculation that there may be an increase in Type 2 diabetes in the next few years. A study by Eva M. Vivian finds a rise in Type 2 diabetes in children and adolescents worldwide. Vivian…...

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Works Cited

Boulanger, E., J.L. Wautier, P. Dequiedt, and a.M. Schmidt. "Glycation, glycoxidation and diabetes mellitus."

Nephrological Therapy (2006) 2 Suppl 1, S8-16.

Schiel, R., S. Franke, T. Appel, U. Voigt, I.S. Ross, R. Kientsch-Engel, U.A. Muller, and G. Stein. "Improvement of the quality of diabetes control and decrease in the concentrations of AGE-products in patients with type 1 and insulin-treated type 2 diabetes mellitus: results from a 10-year-prospective, population-based survey on the quality of diabetes care in Germany (JEVIN)."   European Journal of Medical Researchhttp://www.medscape.com/medline/publicationbrowser/123?pmid=15337629 "

2004), 9(8), 391-9.

In cases where glycemic control is not achieved by dietary adjustments, commencing insulin therapy is strongly recommended. It is also essential to monitor the fetal health using ultrasound screening to avoid any complications during delivery of the baby. Regular monitoring of maternal glycemic levels and proper obstetric care should greatly help in reducing the potential health complications associated with diabetes during pregnancy.
ibliography

1) Alana luman Jincoe, (2006), 'Diabetes: Monitoring maternal and Fetal Wellbeing', ritish Journal of Midwifery, Vol 14, no 2.

2) Terry J. Rosenberg, PhD, Samantha Garbers, MPA, Heather Lipkind, MD, and Mary Ann Chiasson, DrPH (Sep 2005), 'Maternal Obesity and diabetes as risk factors for Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes: Differences among four Racial Ethnic Groups', American Journal of Public Health Vol 95, no 9.

3) Huether, S & McCance K (2008), 'Understanding Pathophysiology', Mosby Elseiver.

4) Medscape, (2004), 'Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Pathophysiology', retrieved Nov 3rd 2010, from, http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/483810_2

5) Medline, 'Diabetes and Pregnancy',…...

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Bibliography

1) Alana Bluman Jincoe, (2006), 'Diabetes: Monitoring maternal and Fetal Wellbeing', British Journal of Midwifery, Vol 14, no 2.

2) Terry J. Rosenberg, PhD, Samantha Garbers, MPA, Heather Lipkind, MD, and Mary Ann Chiasson, DrPH (Sep 2005), 'Maternal Obesity and diabetes as risk factors for Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes: Differences among four Racial Ethnic Groups', American Journal of Public Health Vol 95, no 9.

3) Huether, S & McCance K (2008), 'Understanding Pathophysiology', Mosby Elseiver.

4) Medscape, (2004), 'Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Pathophysiology', retrieved Nov 3rd 2010, from,  http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/483810_2

Bckground -- Diabetes mellitus is also known as Type II Diabetes, or non-insulin-dependent diabetes (adult onset diabetes in certain cases). The disorder is due to a number of variables that are present in the modern, developed world -- sugary foods, fast foods, lack of exercise, etc. It is characterized by higher than normal blood glucose levels that play havoc with insulin deficiency and resistance. Insulin resistance means that cells do not respond appropriately when there is free insulin in the blood system. Essentially, they body is reacting to an improper balance of sugars and insulin. Because obesity is often present, research suggests that even thought the mechanisms controling glucose and insulin are unclear, the adopose tissue likely plays a crucial role in the lack of proper uptake of sugards. Two new emergent ideas show that there is an issue of ectopic fat storage (fatty deposits in the muscles, liver, and…...

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REFERENCES

American Diabetes Association. (2009, March). Statistics. Retrieved from Diabetic.org:  http://www.diabetes.org/news-research/research/diabetes-statistics/total-prevelance.html 

Boseman, J., & Victor, L. (2004). Aging Americans and Diabetes: A Public Health and Clinical Resopnse. Geriatrics, 59(4), 14-17.

Evans, M. (2010). Evidence-Based Practice Protocol to Improve Glucose Control in Individuals with Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus. Nursing, 317-22.

Foster, G.D. (2010). The Effects of a Pre-Packaged, Portion Controlled Meal Plan on Type 2 Diabetes and Glycemic Control: A Comparison Study. Temple Univeristy.

versus Type II Diabetes Mellitus in pregnancy and adverse pregnancy outcome
This intention of this dissertation is to firstly provide an overview of the most recent research into the issue of Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes, with the aim of examining in detail specific aspects and differences between the two types and the impact of diabetes mellitus on pregnancy and pregnancy outcomes. A further focus of this study is the emphasis on Type II diabetes and on the non-physical causative and prognostic factors in pregnancy. Issues such as naturalistic therapies and environmental and hereditary issues will form part of the overall discussion. The study also attempts to provide a balanced and comprehensive view of both types of the disease from various perspectives.

Overview: The essential difference between Type I and Type II diabetes

There are two forms of diabetes mellitus. Type I is insulin dependent while Type II is non-insulin-dependent. In…...

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Bibliography

Auslander, Wendy F., et al. "Family Stress and Resources: Potential Areas of Intervention in Children Recently Diagnosed with Diabetes." Health and Social Work 18.2 (1993): 101+. Questia. 6 Jan. 2005   / .http://www.questia.com 

Binder, Markus, et al. "A Pilot Study Examining the Effect of Distant Healing on Type II Diabetes Patients." The Journal of Parapsychology 63.3 (1999): 1998.

Decoster, Vaughn A. "CHALLENGES OF TYPE 2 DIABETES AND ROLE OF HEALTH CARE SOCIAL WORK: A Neglected Area of Practice." Health and Social Work 26.1 (2001): 26. Questia. 6 Jan. 2005

EBP
Type 2 diabetes mellitus has become a common condition afflicting individuals worldwide. There are an increasing number of women in the reproductive age group presenting with type 2 diabetes, which necessitates appropriate risk management in order to reduce the likelihood of any negative effects for mothers and fetuses (Mahmud & Mazza, 2010). Prevention of any complications among this high risk group is best achieved through preconception care including counseling that effectively provides women with type 2 diabetes with information and guidance in order to achieve the most successful pregnancy outcomes. How is this preconception care most effectively delivered and how are pregnancy outcomes impacted?

Guidelines for preconception care should consist of counseling surrounding risks that uncontrolled preconceptional blood sugar poses regarding congenital malformation, and how appropriate blood sugar control should be achieved prior to conception, thus placing emphasis on the importance of effective contraception (Mahmud & Mazza, 2010). However, there seems…...

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References

Brooten, D., Youngblut, J.M., Brown, L., Finkler, S.A., Madigan, E. (2001). A randomized trial of nurse specialist home care for women with high-risk pregnancies: outcomes and costs. American Journal of Managed Care, 7(8), 793-803.

Charron-Prowchownik, D., Sereika, S.M., Wang, S.L., Hannan, M.F., Fischl, A.R., Stewart, S.H., Dean McElhinny, T. (2006). Reproductive health and preconception counseling awareness in adolescents with diabetes: what they don't know can hurt them. Diabetes Education, 32(2), 235-42.

Fischl, A.F., Herman, W.H., Sereika, S.M., Hannan, M., Becker, D., Mansfield, M.J., Freytag, L.L., Milaszewski, K., Botscheller, A.N., Charron-Prochownik, D. (2010). Impact of a preconception counseling program for teens with type 1 diabetes (READY-Girls) on patient provider interaction, resource utilization, and cost. Diabetes Care, 33(4), 701-5.

Herman, W.H., Janz, N.K., Becker, M.P., Charron-Prochownik, D. (1999). Diabetes and pregnancy: preconception care, pregnancy outcomes, resource utilization and costs. Journal of Reproductive Medicine, 44(1), 33-8.

Diabetes Mellitus Type II
Diabetes is described as a condition that results from a chronic problem of hyperglycaemia that is brought about by insulin inaction in the body system. Diabetes type II is a condition that fronts the case for a range of diabetic problems characterised by some pathophysiological symptoms, including increased insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion. The problems observed in the cell function and the deteriorating pancreatic conditions develop over a period of time. The root and development of diabetes type II is linked to the abnormal secretion of insulin, its action and endogenous output of glucose (EGO Type II diabetes affects over 6.4% of the world's population. This percentage represents over 285 million people the world over. It is expected that the number will increase to 7.7% (439 million) by the year 2030. The epidemic of Diabetes mellitus II (T2DM) as perceived by medical experts is an…...

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References

Imran, M., Ardasenov, Z., Brown, K., Maz, M., & Magadan, J. (2015). Diabetic Myonecrosis of Bilateral Thighs in Newly Diagnosed Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.

Kohei, K. A. K. U. (2010). Pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes and its treatment policy.

Leontis, L., & Hess, A. (n.d.). Type 2 Diabetes Risk Factors. Retrieved February 24, 2016, from  http://www.endocrineweb.com/conditions/type-2-diabetes/type-2-diabetes-risk-factors 

JMAJ, 53(1), 41-46.

Prediction of Diabetes using Machine Learning

Machine learning (ML) algorithms have emerged as valuable tools in predicting diabetes, a chronic condition characterized by high blood sugar levels. Various ML algorithms have been employed in the literature to predict diabetes, with varying levels of accuracy and effectiveness. This literature review aims to identify the most promising ML algorithms for diabetes prediction.

Logistic Regression

Logistic regression is a widely used ML algorithm that has been extensively studied for diabetes prediction. It models the relationship between independent variables (e.g., age, weight, biomarkers) and a binary outcome (e.g., presence or absence of diabetes). Logistic regression has shown....