Stem cells are cells that can develop into other forms of cells; Evans's cells could develop into entire mice. Evans eventually began altering the genetic material in the stem cells, creating mice that had genetic material from other creatures and could pass that material on to their offspring" (313). These findings, together with the research conducted separately by Capecchi and Smithies, enabled several teams of researchers to develop knockout mice (Lauerman 313).
In 2007, Evans received the Nobel Prize for medicine for these discoveries and the development of knockout mice that could be used to help scientists better understand and possibly cure diseases such as cystic fibrosis, heart disease, diabetes and cancer (Briton wins Nobel Prize 4). According to the editors of Environmental Health Perspectives (2005), the Comparative Mouse Genomics Centers Consortium (CMGCC) already has 54 transgenic or knockout mouse models developed at varying stages of construction and characterization (with…...

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Works Cited

Alonso-Magdalena, Paloma, Sumiko Morimoto, Cristina Ripoll, Esther Fuentes and Angel Nadal. (2006). "The Estrogenic Effect of Bisphenol a Disrupts Pancreatic [Beta]-Cell Function in Vivo and Induces Insulin Resistance." Environmental Health Perspectives 114(1):106.

Barondes, Samuel H. Better Than Prozac: Creating the Next Generation of Psychiatric Drugs. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Bertazzi, P.A., D. Consonni, S. Bachetti et al. (2001). "Health effects of dioxin exposure: a 20-year mortality study." American Journal of Epidemiology 153:1031-1044 in Alonso- Magdalena et al. At 107.

Bowers, Barbara J. (2000). "Applications of Transgenic and Knockout Mice in Alcohol Research." Alcohol Research & Health 24(3):175.

G Protein-Linked eceptors
An organism must respond appropriately to its internal and external environments day after day in order to survive. The organism's cells respond to internal and external stimuli much like tiny computers that process numerous inputs and also produce numerous outputs in daily existence (Kennedy 2004). These stimuli are signals that come from the general environment or the cells of other or co-existing organisms, proximate or distant, and this exchange of stimuli and responses involves three sequential processes. These are signal that binds to the receptor protein, the binding that sends a message to the receiving cell's cytoplasm that amplifies it, and the receiving cell's change or response to the signal (Kennedy).

Cells must process the perceived information from the environment and form appropriate responses to it and not all cells can do this. In order to interpret signals, a cell should have the appropriate receptor protein (Kennedy 2004). Multi-cellular…...

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References

Adler, E. (2000). G protein-linked coupled receptors. Biology 304. Neurobiology. http://www.ams.edu/BIMO.liz.LEC14.html

Altruis Biomedical Network. (2002). Cellular communication. Altruis LLC.  http://www.cell-biology.com/cellcom.html 

Bockaert1, J. And Pin, Jean Philippe. (1999). Molecular tinkering of g protein-coupled receptors: an evolutionary success. The EMBP Journal, volume 18 pp 1723-1729.  http://embojournal.npgjournals.com/cgi/content/full/18/7/1723 

Department of Biology. (2003). Signal transduction mechanisms: 11 messengers and receptors. The World of the Cell: Memorial LL of Newfoundland.  http://www.mun.ca/biology/desmid/brian/BIOL2060_2003/CellBiol10/CB10.html

In the tissue culture, they usually proliferate indefinitely. The normal constraints which limit the growth of the cells absent in the cancerous state and are also characterized by the division ability for number of generations which is unlimited.
Cell cycle and cancer

With millions of chemical reactions taking place concurrently and in specific areas, the human body can be thought of as a small laboratory. It is the only "machine" with the ability to save fuel when fed in excess and also know to bring out the reserves when facing starvation, capable to protect itself from attacks by viruses and bacteria, ability to make adjustments to withstand changes of weather and the ability to learn, think and create on its own. The human body system is well integrated and organized, able to perform vital functions important to its survival. Malfunctions in the body can have damaging results that range in severity…...

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References

Dingli, D., & Nowak, M. 9(2009). Infectious Cancer Cells. Pubmed, 443(7107), 35-36.

Franks, L.M. (1991). Introduction to the cellular and Molecular Biology of cancer (2ed.).

Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.

Henkart, P. (1999). About apoptosis. Retrieved April 14, 2010, from  http://www.nih.gov/sigs/aig/Aboutapo.html

Cell Division
All living things are complex organisms that are made up of cells. Some are made up of a single cell while others comprise of numerous cells working together. Cells are the basic functional and structural units of living organisms and are known to be the building blocks of life. In humans it is from a group of cells that tissues are made and from tissues that organs are made which enable beings to live.

Cells obtain food and oxygen through their membranes and each membrane has a specific area which can serve contents of only a given volume. Any increase in volume of the cell requires that the area of the membrane increases. Basically, when cells grow the membrane becomes insufficient in aiding the movement of substances in and out and thus to maintain a favourable surface area to volume ratio, cell division must take place. Furthermore, cell division ensures…...

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References

Bolsover, S., E. Shephard, H. White, and J. Hyams. Cell Biology: A Short Course. 3. Wiley-

Blackwell, 2011. 432.

Conger, Krista. "Scientists turn skin cells into neural precursors, bypassing stem-cell stage." Stanford School of Medicine. n. page. Print.

Morgan, David. The Cell Cycle: Principles of Control. New Science Press, 2007.

Cell Biology
Define ATP

ATP is necessary for any cell to produce energy and perform specific actions. This involves using three different compounds that are connected with each other to achieve these larger objectives. The most notable include: C10H16N5O13 and P3.The process enables biologists to understand the way cells function. (Bergen, 2015) (Falls, 2012)

Describe how and where energy (ATP) is generated

The ATP is an enzyme that is used to transport energy to different parts of the cell where it is needed the most. This consists of purine compounds to store and retrieve the energy (via a process known as glycolic). As the food is consumed, this energy is released to numerous regions to perform various functions. The most notable include: the production of glucose, beta oxidation, fermentation, anaerobic respiration and for ATP production / recycling. These areas are important, as they are demonstrating how this helps it to break down minerals and…...

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References

Bergen, J. (2015). The New Power Brew. Fitness Magazine. Retrieved from: http://www.fitnessmagazine.com/health/energy-boosters/tips/healthy-energy-drinks/

Falls, W. (2012). Biology. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

The blood with the IgG must be effectively removed from the body, or reduced to levels that will not allow the cells to be a danger to the infant. If caught early enough, plasma transfers for the mother can result in enough of a reduction of IgG levels to forestall the effects to the fetus.
8)

Autoimmune diseases occur when, for a variety of reasons, the body responds to its own cells as though they were dangerous foreign cells. In this way they are similar to an allergic response; an unrecognized but harmless entity is viciously attacked by the body in an attempt to destroy the perceived intruder. This is annoying (and possibly deadly) when it comes to allergies, and far more so when the body essentially becomes allergic to itself.

Though the reasons behind the onset of Type I diabetes are still not fully understood, the disease occurs when the insulin…...

Given a mosquito's vastly shorter life span, preventing the spread of the infection to more human hosts greatly reduces the number of viable parasites in existence (CDC 2009).
10)

There are several reasons that viral infections are more difficult to treat and diagnose than bacterial infections. For one thing, viruses are not truly alive, and this makes it difficult to kill them. They are essentially packets of genetic information in tough protein shells; there are no real biological mechanisms for medicines to disrupt. In addition, the virus' use of host cells as reproduction sites means that drugs used to attack the virus often als due damage to healthy cells and the body's natural defenses. The basic life cycle of an animla virus includes hijacking a host cell and reproducing until rupture, where the process continues in new host cells. Most viruses can remain viable indefinitely outside a host, so the death…...

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Reference

CDC. (2009). "Malaria." Accessed 22 September 2009.  http://www.cdc.gov/Malaria/index.htm

Most fungi can also reproduce through sexual reproduction both with the same organism mixing gametes and with reproduction between two separate organisms. The cells of many fungi are primarily copies of each other, without differentiation of organs (except in the fruiting sections of the organism, such as the mushrooms and molds typically visible and known to humans).
6)

Fungi are considered a separate kingdom for several reasons. They are different from plants in their inability to produce energy from sunlight, and in fact most grow in dark places. Unlike animals and many protozoa, they cannot move; unlike most protozoa, they exist almost entirely as multicellular and colonial organisms.

7)

The various classifications of fungi are determined based on their method(s) of reproduction. Zygomycota produce both asexual and sexual spores, while Basidiomycota rarely produce asexually and produce a different type of sexual spore. Ascomycota produce asexual spores, and can also grow buds that break…...

Once in the cells, the glucose is burned in order to create heat and adenosine triphosyphate, (ATP) which is a molecule that stores and releases energy as required by the cell.

The metabolism of glucose into energy happens either in combination with oxygen which is called aerobic metabolism or without it which is called anaerobic metabolism. The oxygen used comes from the mitochondria. Red blood cells do not have mitochondria, so they convert glucose into energy without the use of oxygen, unlike some other cells.

Glucose is also converted to energy inside muscle cells. These are probably the most important energy users. Muscle cells contain mitochondria so they can process glucose with oxygen. Even if the level of oxygen levels in the muscle-cell mitochondria fall too low, the cells can proceed to convert glucose into energy without oxygen. The down side is that making glucose into energy without oxygen produces the by-product…...

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Works Cited

"How We Turn Glucose Into Energy." (2006). 28 February 2010.

"Lipids." (n.d.). 28 February 2010.

Singh, Mike. (2010). "How Is Energy Produced and Used Up in Our Body?" 28 February 2010,

d.).
The primary organ that is accountable for regulating metabolism is the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is situated on the brain stem and forms the floor and part of the lateral walls of the third ventricle of the cerebrum. The main functions of the hypothalamus is to control and integrate activities of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), production and regulation of feelings of rage and aggression, regulation of body temperature and regulation of food intake (Graham, 2005).

BM goes down with age and with the loss of lean body mass. Increased muscle mass and cardiovascular exercise can help to increase BM, even when the body is at rest. Measured in calories, metabolic rates vary with exertion, recent food ingestion, muscle exertion, environmental temperature, emotional state, body temperature, pregnancy, menstruation, level of thyroid hormones stress hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine), fear and illness. The human body requires energy in order to stay alive and basal…...

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References

Basal Metabolic Rate. (2010). Retreived July 22, 2010, from Buzzle Web site:

 http://www.buzzle.com/articles/basal-metabolic-rate.html 

Basal metabolic rate. (2010). Retreived July 22, 2010, from Wellness.com Web site:

 http://www.wellness.com/reference/fitness/basal-metabolic-rate/practice-theory-and-evidence

In other words, performance on the learning tests is associated with neurogenesis. The gene expression measures were taken to aide future research.
The results showed that performance on the learning tests did change, and the hypothesis was proven. Stress from the change, the intermittent pairings, did increase hippocampal neurogenesis in the adult male squirrel monkeys. Learning, especially spatial learning, was enhanced. Moreover, the corresponding gene expressions changed accordingly.

The authors suggest that the results may be generalized to a human population. With special attention paid to human beings suffering from depression, the authors suggest that specially-designed psychotherapeutic interventions for coping with stress will help stimulate hippocampal neurogenesis. Hippocampal neurogenesis is in turn associated with improved cognition. Therefore, effective coping mechanisms are likely to have a positive impact on overall psychological functioning.

This research demonstrates several key areas of interest, such as the ability for researchers to use non-human primates to study human…...

In one laboratory experiment, bacteria exposed to high levels of pathogenic bacteria over several hundred generations eventually adapted "their progeny became dependent on having the formerly pathogenic bacteria in food vacuoles...(Jeon, 1991)" (Armstrong) There are several ways in which bacteria may subsume other bacteria, including ingesting them and maintaining them in food vacuoles as in the Jeon experiment, or they may become infected by bacteria that are acting as parasites. Mitochondria, for example, could have been parasitic and fed off the host at the same time that they proved useful to it. Chloroplasts, because they are significantly self-supporting, are more likely to have been introduced as food. This theory continues to suggest that after many generations of true symbiosis, the mitochondria and chloroplasts lost their independence.
If the endosymbiosis theory was correct, there are many things which should hypothetically prove true in experimentation. For example, it should be evidenced that…...

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Bibliography

Armstrong. Customer supplied source.

Smith, V. et all. "Endosymbiotic theory." EvoWiki. http://wiki.cotch.net/index.php/Endosymbiotic_theory

Probably one of the most important elements of this research is that the antibodies from the b-cells attack only the cancer cells, not the surrounding healthy cells, and so, they are far less invasive and intimidating than other types of treatment like radiation or surgery.
The drug ituxan is also used in concert with other treatments to gain the best results in more patients, and the only downside so far has been that not all patients of certain cancer types, such as lymphoma, respond to the drug (Editors). That is Levy's biggest challenge for the future, to discover why all or most patients do not respond favorably to treatment. If he can discover that, the implications for future treatment and elimination of certain cancers is even more promising.

In addition, these therapies have been used to treat many types of lymphomas, and have sent them into remission, which gives patients many…...

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References

Antibody therapeutics dominate meeting. (2005). Retrieved 7 Nov. 2007 from the Genengnews.com Web site:  http://www.genengnews.com/articles/chitem.aspx?aid=872&chid=3 .

Conger, K. (2004). Ronald Levy, the antibody hero. Retrieved 7 Nov. 2007 from the Stanford School of Medicine Web site:  http://stanmed.stanford.edu/2004fall/levy.html .

Hobson, K. (2004). Ronald Levy: Cancer's natural enemy. Retrieved 7 Nov. 2007 from the U.S. News.com Web site:  http://health.usnews.com/usnews/health/articles/040712/12levy.htm .

In fact, I think I'll just keep eating for a while, I'm not feeling quite full yet. There, that did it.
Did I mention there's a whole bunch of us hanging out in here? Well, it seems there were quite a few of us in that fish our human ate, and we've all taken up residence here. Some of us are in the intestines, but most of us are just hanging out here, enjoying the company. After breakfast, I just take a little time to digest my meal, and then it's time for my own morning cleansing. I'll excrete my nasty stuff, right into my human's bile, and then it will travel out along with my human's excretions. I spend some time shifting around and making sure I'm securely attached, so I don't head outside along with the morning meal, and then, I'm ready to do my favorite thing for…...

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References

Editors. "Clonorchiasis." Centers for Disease Control & Prevention. 2007. 17 Nov. 2007.  http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/DPDX/HTML/Clonorchiasis.htm 

Fan, P.C. "Viability of metacercariae of Clonorchis sinensis in Frozen or Salted Freshwater Fish." International Journal for Parasitology, Vol. 28, No. 4, 1998, April. 603-605.

Lin, Rui Lin, and Xueming Li, Chungeng Lan, Senhai Yu, Kawanaka Masanori. "Investigation on the Epidemiological Factors of Clonorchis sinensis Infection in an Area of South China." Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health. Vol. 36, No 5, 2005. 1114-1117.

Shin, Hai-Rim, and Chae-Un Lee, Hyung-Jong Park, Sang-Young Seol, Jung-Myeong Chung, Ha-Chin Choi, Yoon-Ok Ahn, Takao Shigemastu. "Hepatitis B and C Virus, Clonorchis sinensis for the Risk of Liver Cancer: A Case-Control Study in Pusan, Korea." International Journal of Epidemiology Vol. 25, No. 5, 1996. 933-940.

Moreover, it was unknown which specific chemical fertilizers would be more conducive to plant growth in Brassica rapa in particular. Another possible reason for the unexpected results is differential application of the fertilizer. For this research, the same .07 grams of fertilizer was applied to each cell. Yet it is possible that some types of fertilizer, such as liquid fertilizer, require more or less than the .07 grams. Future research would take into account the different chemical compositions of fertilizers, making sure to control for those differences. Also, future research would take into account the fact that the same amount of liquid, pellet, or powder may not yield results. The commercial instructions for each of the fertilizers should be followed. Also, it would be helpful to monitor plant growth for more than 64 hours. Future research could also include plant varieties other than Brassica rapa in case this particular…...

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References

"Fertilizing Your Organic Garden," (n.d.). Dummies.com. Retrieved online:  http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/fertilizing-your-organic-garden.html 

Relf, D., McDaniel, A. & Donohue, S. (2009). Fertilizing the vegetable garden. Virginia Cooperative Extension. Retrieved online:  http://pubs.ext.vt.edu/426/426-323/426-323.html