The concept of duty implies the need to overcome some obstacle in order to act, and it is foolish to speak of God as having to overcome any obstacles whatever. To explain further the notion of duty, Kant uses as an example a merchant who does not overcharge an inexperienced customer. This decision is completely in accord with duty. Assume, though that the merchant avoids overcharging so that he can give all his customers the same price in order to keep them coming to him for merchandise. He does this because it is to his advantage to do it. It is, in fact, just good business. He does not do it because there is a moral principle involved, though the result is the same as if he were doing it from duty. ecause the merchant is not acting from moral duty, however, his action cannot be considered a moral…...

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Bibliography

Kant, Immanuel. Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals (2006, November). Jonathan Bennett. http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/pdf/kantgw.pdf.

Immanuel Kant, Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals (2006, November), 18.

human life be more valuable than another? William Godwin's thought experiment concerning Fenelon and his valet is intended to argue precisely this point. Godwin proposed a burning building with two people in it, Fenelon and his servant. Godwin argues "that life ought to be preferred which will be most conducive to the general good" and concludes that the moralist who would write the "immortal Telemachus" is therefore more valuable than the domestic servant. Even though students today are unlikely to have heard of Fenelon or share Godwin's high estimation of him, the thought experiment still stands. I propose, however, that applying the moral philosophy of Kant to Godwin's problem will demonstrate that Godwin's ethical sense here is no more infallible than his sense of Fenelon's literary immortality.
Kant's ethical theory is primarily concerned with the motivations for performing a moral action, not with the effects or consequences that the action…...

Utilitarianism and Categorical Imperatives
A Comparison of the Theories of Utilitarianism and Categorical Imperatives

The principles of Utilitarianism and Categorical Imperatives contradict each other on many fronts. Both provide a rational for making moral decisions, both have benefits and flaws. A compelling argument can be made for each. From my perspective the principal's of Kant exemplify a more ethical way to conduct life.

Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism as a specific school of thought is generally credited to Jeremy Bentham, who outlined this theory in his 1789 work, Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. Bentham believed pain and pleasure were the only fundamental values in the world and from this belief he developed his rule of utility, the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. This is known as Act Utilitarianism. An act is to be preferred to its alternatives according to the extent of the increase it achieves,…...

There is a need to clearly point out that the two elements are never synonymous.
The process of perfecting our own natural state in the Kantian view implies that we are actually in the process of attempting to cultivate "the crude dispositions of [our] nature, by which the animal is first raised into the human being" (Kant 1996b).In order to achieve this, Kant suggests that one is required to effectively cultivate their capacities in various personal levels and be respectful to the end of one's existence. Therefore an individual has a choice as to which of their powers they can cultivate. This is because that is where the true end actually lies.

The moral perception therefore is made up of two main commands:

Be holy and Be perfect

The very first one 'be holy" is geared towards the description of the purity of an individual's moral self-perfection. It however demands that in an individual's…...

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References

Arnold, F (2002) Can a Philosophy of Race Afford to Abandon the Kantian Categorical Imperative?. Journal of Social Philosophy; Spring2002, Vol. 33 Issue 1, p17-32, 16p

Constance, P.(2007). Suicide Fails to Pass the Categorical Imperative. American Journal of Bioethics; Jun2007, Vol. 7 Issue 6, p51-53, 3p

Marcus, W.(2009). Right and Coercion: Can Kant's Conception of Right be Derived from his

Moral Theory? International Journal of Philosophical Studies; Feb2009, Vol. 17 Issue 1, p49-70, 22p

The Bible also calls for the application of human free will to morality, as does Kant. Stories in the Bible reveal how human actors either obey or disobey the moral codes prescribed to them by the Biblical authorities, namely God. When God issues a "thou shalt," that moral law is ensconced. The person has free will, and therefore can be tricked by a malicious force symbolized by Satan. It is necessary to have free will for the categorical imperative to work, which is why there is the problem between good and evil in the first place. If it were easy for human beings to always do good, then Kant would have not had the impetus to write Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals. There would be an imperative to act, but it would not be categorical. Free will empowers the human being to make morally righteous choices, in accordance with…...

Kant's universal principle of right and categorical imperative has yielded a heated debate on whether there is relationship between the two (UPR and CI). The debate arises on the question, "Can Kant's "universal principle of right" be derived from his "categorical imperative?" Many authors have presented their view, against and supporting. This debate is significant since it helps in realizing the impact of the juridical law on the individuals in the society. It helps in determining whether personal self-interest, concerning moral principles, would affect the action of the judicial law.
Kant's intentions

Kant intends to derive universal principle right from the categorical imperative. Kant explains that the categorical imperative represents an unconditional moral law that applies to all rational being and is independent of any personal motive or desire (Kant, 229). Further, Kant describes universal principle of right within the context of "every action is right in response to the universal law…...

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Work cited

Nance, Michael. Kantian Right and the Categorical Imperative: Response to Willaschek. International Journal of Philosophical Studies ISSN 0967 -- 2559 print 1466 -- 4542 online 2012 Taylor & Francis.doi.org/10.1080/09672559.2012.668921

Willaschek, Marcus. Right and Coercion: Can Kant's Conception of Right be Derived from his Moral Theory? International Journal of Philosophical Studies ISSN 0967 -- 2559 print 1466 -- 4542 online 2009 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/09672550802610982

Kant, Immanuel, and Thomas K. Abbott. Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals. Radford, Va: Wilder Publications, 2008. Print.

solving throughout this term.
Solve the dilemma using Kant's ethics (Categorical Imperative).

Solve the dilemma using any other method we have discussed to date (with which you agree.)

State which resolution (Kant's or the other one you chose) you prefer and why.

Britain's lush canopy tree is in danger of extermination due to axe-happy people preoccupying themselves with chopping it down. eason includes the facts that they cause shedding of fruit at unsuspecting passersby heads; that they drop conkers, and leaves that make pavements slippery, as well as that they sink roots under houses and pavements. In their place, British architecturalists grow the so-called lollipop trees which are not only smaller, more compact varieties with shorter root systems, but also supposedly cheaper to grow. However, these trees do not provide the same advantages of the canopy ones which "clean air, capturing molecules of pollution; absorb CO2 while giving off oxygen; act as sound…...

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Reference

Williams, Bernard (1993). Morality: An Introduction to Ethics. Cambridge University Press.

Siegle L (26 July 2008 ) How can we save our trees from the chop? The Guardian  http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/jul/27/ethicalliving.carbonemissions

It is not too much of a stretch to extend the moral choice to the question of following through on commitments in general. If everyone abandoned their commitments when circumstances changed, the concept of commitment would become nonsensical, resulting in a logical inconsistency. Therefore, according to Kant, Ben and Sarah would be bound by a categorical imperative to continue paying their mortgage if they are able.
The situation is more complex, however, than Kant's moral system addresses. When applying the universal law test, we find that Ben and Sarah are equally bound to their other commitments, including their commitments to themselves and their child. The only way to find their correct moral path in the Kantian sense would be for them to intend to follow through on all of their commitments, and to do everything in their power to follow that intention, even if they are not ultimately able to.…...

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References

Atwell, John. Ends and Principles in Kant's Moral Thought. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1986.

Kant, Immanuel. Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals, trans. James Ellington. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 1981.

Pruss, Alexander. "Kantian Maxims and Lying." Georgetown University Faculty Papers. Web.  http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/ap85/papers/KantianMaxims.html

However, although utilitarianism traditionally promotes the greatest good for the greatest number, in actuality, in his second chapter on Utilitarianism, Mill criticizes Kant's categorical imperative as the same as utilitarianism since it involves calculating the good or bad consequences of an action to determine the morality of that action. Mill argues that his task is to demonstrate this highest principle inductively. Instead, he argues that actions are right in proportion, as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. (IEP, 2001) but it thus also could be argued from Mill's theory, that the use of the patients harms the hospital as well as the patients, and provides only shady future benefits, while does secure and sure harm to human happiness in the here and now, by turning humans into guinea pigs. Thus, from both moral perspectives of Kant and Mill, the actions of…...

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Works Cited

Extreme Measures." 1996.

IEP. "John Stewart Mill: Utilitarianism." The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2001.   Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2001. [22 Feb 2005]http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/m/milljs.htm#topThe 

McCormack. "Kant's Criticisms of Utilitarianism," the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2001.   of Utilitarianism. [22 Feb 2005]http://www.iep.utm.edu/k/kantmeta.htm#Kant 'sCriticisms

Ethical Philosophies
Ethics

Utilitarianism, Kant's categorical imperative, virtue ethics, and Confucianism

One of the most intuitive ethical philosophies is that of utilitarianism, an ethical ideal that suggests that ethical decisions should be made based upon what decisions will achieve the greatest good for the greatest number of people. When we weigh decisions based upon their costs and benefits, we are taking a kind of utilitarian approach to decision-making (Ethics 5: Utilitarianism, 2008). Utilitarianism attempts to rationally calculate what will maximize pleasure and minimize pain: it does not view any action as inherently good or bad but rather focuses on the practical consequences of our decisions. It seeks to maximize utility, whether this is happiness for the individual or profit for a business. One of the obvious detriments of utilitarian theory is that many decisions often have a very negative impact upon a minority of people. Another problem is defining what constitutes 'the…...

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References

Aristotle: Virtue ethics. (2012). Retrieved at:

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=HTCS5-SAVIE 

Confucianism. (2009). Retrieved at:

  -- AFCI4HCU#!http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=O 

free will and whether we can ever attain individuality, or whether lack of free will constrains us from ever achieving the individuality that we wish to achieve.
On the one hand, we believe that we are gifted with the ability to choose happiness and liberty would we so wish and create ourselves into the individuals that we believe is necessary for our life's liberty and contentment. On the other hand, certain aspects seem beyond our control. ome are born handicapped and others in ghetto-like poverty. till others are born in rigid, fundamentalist type backgrounds where they are indoctrinated and socialized in a certain type of thinking that causes them to perceive aspects in a certain way, to judges, a and act accordingly. The question can be extended to any and all, civilizations without going to the extremes of turning to religious or socialist regimes for illustration. After all, we all…...

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Sources

Bargh, JA & Chartrand, TL (1999) The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist, Vol 54(7), 462-479

Berger PL & Luckmann, T (1967) The social construction of reality: a treatise in the sociology of knowledge Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday,

Feldman, D. (2012)Unorthodox: the scandalous rejection of my Hasidic roots New York: Simon & Schuster

Glover, S. (2004) Separate visual representations in the planning and control of action Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 27: pp 3-24

Ethical Issues of Importance
Kant's categorical imperative is the notion that there are some compulsions that are inherently ethical. It means there are some actions and codes of ethics that are ethically defensible in an immutable fashion, regardless of the situation. The best example of a categorical imperative is the proverbial golden rule which states: do unto others as you would have them do unto you.

Hypothetical imperatives function as the antithesis of categorical imperatives. They are actions that are ethically defensible based on certain mutable factors such as desire or temporary circumstances. Hypothetical imperatives mean that there are certain situations in which one can engage in behavior deemed ethical, and others in which it is unethical behavior. Selling stock in the stock market is an example of this imperative.

Kant's first formulation is to act only on maxims that one wants to be universal law. It means only do those things you…...

Living authentically "as if" my actions had the force of reason strikes me as very similar to living in deliberate opposition to reason -- which, in a contemporary milieu, often entails structuring a life according to personal experience or even faith. In an era in which the irrational is widely accepted and even embraced -- through the thought of Freud, Kierkegaard, and others in addition to Nietzsche himself -- Kant's confidence in the a priori categories of reason as self-evident universal organizing principles seems innocent at best.
Finally, in a society that jealously protects the perspective of the individual, Kant's appeal to universal or even "categorical" patterns of thought and morality is difficult to integrate into everyday life. If society reserves judgment on moral questions, then how can we ascribe objective force to our own maxims for a just life? Perhaps ironically, the best way to live under such circumstances…...

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Works Cited

Kant, Immanuel. Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals. Trans. Mary J. Gregor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm. Beyond Good and Evil. Trans. Helen Zimmern. Charleston, SC: Bibliobazaar, 2008.

-- -- . The Antichrist. Trans. Helen Zimmern. Charleston, SC: Bibliobazaar, 2008.

-- -- .The Gay Science. Ed. Bernard Williams. Trans. Josefine Nauckhoff. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

This might or might not mean that a business owner would adhere to generally accepted laws and codes. I do not think that I would like to live in such a world, since contradictions might too easily arise. Instead, I would add an extra element to the categorical imperative suggested by Kant.
De Waal's theory adds a dimension to Kant's categorical imperative. He claims that even animals have a culture of compassion and reciprocity, which is echoed in the human race. According to this theory, the rational mind is not the sole element in human decision making, but emotions such as empathy and compassion also play a role. One might therefore modify the maxim by saying I would maximize my profits within reasonable limits of empathy and reciprocity. In other words, as a business owner, I would empathize with the financial plight of my workers by paying them according to…...

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References

De Waal, F 2006, 'The animal roots of human morality', New Scientist, 192, 2573, pp. 60-61,

Kant, Immanuel. The Categorical Imperative

Since a hypothetical imperative represents one of many possibilities that are only means to an end, they cannot be objectively necessary, and therefore do not have the same command over human behavior as a categorical imperative. As Kant notes, commands are laws that we must obey, even when they contradict our inclinations (27).
(b)

If we treat others as a means to an end, then we use them in service of another goal. However, if we treat others as an end in themselves, then we respect them without regard to any other goals or ends. To treat someone as a means to an end is to make them less important than some end result, whereas to treat someone as an end in themselves makes them the final and most important consideration. Slavery may be the most offensive example of using others as a means to an end, but there are many…...

Part I: The Duality of Human Nature

1. The Eternal Struggle: Good vs. Evil in the Human Heart
2. The Battle Within: The Psyche's Warring Sides
3. Between Light and Shadow: Exploring the Dichotomy of Human Nature
4. The Yin and Yang of Humanity: The Interplay of Virtue and Vice

Part II: The Genesis of Good and Evil

5. Nature vs. Nurture: The Origins of Moral Behavior
6. The Role of Socialization in Shaping Moral Development
7. Environmental Influences and the Impact on Goodness and Evil
8. The Influence of Biology on Moral Disposition

Part III: The Consequences of Good and Evil

9. The Power of Choice: The Impact of Moral....

The Dynamic Intersection between Philosophical Ethics and Christian Theology

Introduction

The relationship between philosophical ethics and Christian theology is multifaceted and dynamic, characterized by both convergence and divergence. This paper explores this intersection, examining the shared concerns, contrasting perspectives, and reciprocal influences between these two disciplines.

Shared Concerns

One key area of convergence is the common concern with moral values and human conduct. Both philosophical ethics and Christian theology seek to provide a framework for understanding right and wrong, guiding individuals toward virtuous actions. Both disciplines acknowledge the importance of love, justice, and mercy, recognizing the inherent value and dignity of all human beings.

Contrasting....

The Interplay between Philosophical Ethics and Christian Beliefs and Practices

Philosophical ethics, with its emphasis on reason, impartiality, and universal norms, has significantly influenced Christian theology and practices throughout history. Here's a detailed exploration of this relationship:

1. Natural Law and Divine Law:

The Stoic concept of natural law, based on reason and the inherent order of the universe, resonated with Christian beliefs. Christian theologians, such as Augustine and Aquinas, argued that God's law was revealed through both natural law and divine revelation (Scripture). Natural law provided a framework for moral behavior, defining what is intrinsically good or evil, regardless of cultural or....