Section 1 Drugs and Addictions1. Define each of the following terms in your own words as they relate to drug use and abuse: addiction, withdraw, and tolerancea. Addiction An addiction is a brain disorder that looks to induce behaviors that are rewarding based on stimuli within the brain. This behavior is characterized as rewarding in the brain but often comes with adverse consequences. Addiction often results in an inability to control behavior, a preoccupation with a certain behavior, or a need for continued use despite many of the consequence associated with it (Blanchard, 1998).b. Withdraw Withdraw is physical or psychological craving for a particularly item after its use has been significantly cut back or diminished. This phase occurs as the body has developed a natural dependence on the item, drug, or behavior, and cannot properly function without its use.c. Tolerance Tolerance occurs as the body becomes…...

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references

1. Bernstein, D. P. (2000). Childhood trauma and drug addiction: Assessment, diagnosis and treatment. Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly, 18, 19-30.

2. Blanchard, D.C. (1998). Stress-related psychopathology as a vulnerability factor in drugtaking: The role of sex. In: Weatherington, C. L. & Roman, A. B. (Eds.). Drug addiction research and the health of women. (pp. 151-164). Rockville, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse.

3. DeHart, S.S., & Hoffmann, N.G. (1995). Screening and diagnosis of \\\\\\"alcohol abuse and dependence\\\\\\" in older adults. The International Journal of the Addictions, 30, 1717-1747.

However, the most important area in terms of the connection between brain development and adolescent delinquency seems to be the prefrontal cortex, located immediately behind the forehead. In many respects, the prefrontal cortex is the "control center" of the human brain because it is substantially responsible for planning, mood modulation, organization, and working memory.
he fact that the prefrontal cortex is not fully developed in adolescence becomes critically important when the adolescent brain is simultaneously flooded by sex hormones during puberty. Especially among males, the combination of an underdeveloped prefrontal cortex with highly elevated levels of testosterone typically results in moodiness, short-temperedness, aggression, the need to exhibit social status and dominance, and rage as response to frustration, conflict, and disappointment. Naturally, there are many other factors that contribute to adolescent behavior. Whereas all teenagers experience the same types of brain development patterns and hormonal surges, not all teenagers necessarily exhibit…...

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The fact that the prefrontal cortex is not fully developed in adolescence becomes critically important when the adolescent brain is simultaneously flooded by sex hormones during puberty. Especially among males, the combination of an underdeveloped prefrontal cortex with highly elevated levels of testosterone typically results in moodiness, short-temperedness, aggression, the need to exhibit social status and dominance, and rage as response to frustration, conflict, and disappointment. Naturally, there are many other factors that contribute to adolescent behavior. Whereas all teenagers experience the same types of brain development patterns and hormonal surges, not all teenagers necessarily exhibit delinquent tendencies. Brain development and hormones are only two contributing factors.

Source Consulted

Gerrig, R.J. And Zimbardo, P.G. (2009) Psychology and Life. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Anomic Aphasia is also known as nominal aphasia, dysnomia, and amnesic aphasia and refers to a disorder that generates difficulties in recalling names or words. This brain disorder is considered as a dearth of expressive language that makes it difficult for an individual to recall names or words. In addition, patients suffering from anomic aphasia experience difficulties in recalling numbers. While an individual has clear understanding of what he/she is attempting to name or write, he/she requires a relatively long period of time to recall it or may experience tremendous challenges in articulating the word, name or numbers. In some cases, patients suffering from anomic aphasia produce jargon words or other words when attempting to recall or express certain words, names or numbers. The other symptom of this condition is the inability for a patient to identify the appropriate word for an object or individual through he/she has the capability…...

The complex dynamic processes that underlie the development of the various functionalities of the infant brain and its maturation into an adult brain continue to be studied by researchers working to uncover the pattern of brain development. Earlier, there was a battle between the role of nature and nurture in brain development of a Child. Today, neurologists have concurred that both nature and nurture play a significant role during the initial years of development of the brain. Advancements in neuroimaging techniques including the various refinements in MRI and optical tomography have made possible the focused study of the various developmental stages of the brain in an infant. Particularly, the portable, safe and easy to use Optical tomography has brought the scanning device to the infant instead of having to carry the infant to the scanning device. It is also now a known fact that the emotional and behavioral development…...

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Bibliography

1) Sean Brotherson, 'Understanding Brain Development in Young Children', Accessed Mar 29th 2010, available at,  http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/yf/famsci/fs609w.htm 

2) Nelson, C.A., & Bloom, E. (1997). Child development and neuroscience.

Child Development, 68,970-987.

3) Miguel et.al, 'Withdrawn and intrusive maternal interaction style and infant frontal EEG asymmetry shifts in infants of depressed and non-depressed mothers', Infant Behav Dev. 2006 April; 29(2): 220 -- 229., Available Online at,  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1712668/

life are in many ways the most exciting, as the newborn develops rapidly into a toddler. Changes in sensorimotor skills, in sheer physical growth, in behavior and brain development, language acquisition, and spiritual formation all comprise some of the key components of life during the first two years. Some of these changes are more noticeable than others. The ones to be most aware of include the following:
Body Changes (Biosocial Development)

Motor Skills Changes (Biosocial Development)

Sensorimotor Changes (Cognitive Development)

Language and Communications Changes (Cognitive Development)

Emotional Changes (Psychosocial Development)

These five are the most crucial areas in the baby's first two years of life because of how these changes will impact biological, psychological, and social development later in life. Many of these changes are plainly visible to the parents. For example, the physical size and body of the child will rapidly change over the two years. Likewise, the baby's sleep patterns will change (Berger,…...

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References

Berger, K.S. (2009). Developing Person Through Childhood and Adolescence. 8th Edition. NY: Worth.

Children's Hospital of Richmond at VCU (2015). Fine motor skills: Birth to 2 years. Retrieved online:  http://www.chrichmond.org/Resource-Library/Fine-Motor-Skills-Birth-to-2-years.htm

Brain Development
What Kinds of Changes Are Occurring Within the Brain During the First 2 Years of Life?"

There are several kinds of changes that occur within the brain during the first 2 years of life (Bornstein & Lamb, 89). In fact, some developmental specialists believe that if first two years of life periods in brain development are not utilized, opportunities for brain development can never be regained because in later years the flexibility of using brain is lost. By the time a baby is born, she will have l00 billion brain cells, but these cells are not connected in circuits the way they will be, when the brain begins to mature. In the first two years of life, the brain rapidly forms connections between brain cells and ultimately a single cell can connect with as many as 15,000 other cells (Bruer, 75-81).

During the first year of life, the brain goes through…...

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References

Bornstein, M.H. & Lamb, M.E. Development in Infancy: An Introduction. NY: McGraw-Hill, 1992

Bruer, J.T. The Myth of the First Three Years: A New Understanding of Early Brain Development and Lifelong Learning. NY: Free Press, 1999.

Campbell, F.A. & Ramey, C.T. Cognitive and school outcomes for high-risk African-American students at middle adolescence: Positive effects of early intervention. American Educational Research Journal, 1995, 32(4): 742-772.

Dawson, G & Fishcer, K. Human Behavior and the Developing Brain. NY: Guilford, 1994.

Psychology
One of the earliest theorists of personality development was Sigmund Freud. Freud defined the development of the individual's personality primarily in terms of struggle, loss, and repression -- namely the individual's family romance with the mother that was finally supplanted through a series of phases or traumas. Eventually, the individual's personality achieved a stasis or a maturity whereby the superego checked the impulses of the id and the ego. Jung expanded upon this notion to include the notion of a collective unconscious that all individuals participated in, as personalities whose forms could be generalized into shapes common to all cultures called archetypes. However, humanistic psychologists such as Piaget and Maslow offered developmental views of the personality that were not necessarily traumatic, but based in developing cognitive structures within the brain. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is perhaps most persuasive, suggesting that an individual's personality is based upon satisfying basic needs, such…...

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Works Cited

Freud, Sigmund. (1917) The Ego and the Id.

Huitt, William. (February 2004) "Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs." Educational Philosophy Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved on October 18, 2004 at  http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/regsys/maslow.html 

Jung, Carl. (2004) "Myths, Dreams, Symbols." Retrieved on October 18, 2004 at  http://www.mythsdreamssymbols.com/archetype.html 

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. (2004) Web MD. Retrieved on October 18, 2004 at  http://aolsvc.health.webmd.aol.com/hw/anxiety_panic_disorders/ty3382.asp

Technology has emerged and pervaded the lives of many people as it becomes more advanced and more a part of society. A good and prominent example of this is video games. Even with the leisure and perceived positive effects of video games, their effect on the brain is a cause for concern among many in the scientific and academic communities. While many of the effects could absolutely be good, there are other effects that could be bad with age and stage of brain development being important factors to keep in mind.
One factor that clearly aggravates the situation of people playing video games and it might or does affect the brain is the fact that the younger people who still have the development of their brains in motion. As such, verifying whether or not there are effects on cognition and that development of the brain structure is an important item to…...

Early Childhood: Play Years
Early childhood is a time of rapid mental, physical and emotional growth. As children move past infancy, they begin to explore their surroundings and to build relationships with other children. Four areas of early childhood will be explored; the differences between male and female brain development, pretend play in early childhood, conflict negotiation, and the male and female approaches to relationships and problem solving.

Biology and Language

Scientists have been aware for many years that there are physical differences between the physiology of male and female brains, especially in the way that language is processed. Experts generally tend to agree that women are superior at language skills, while men are stronger in spatial skills. The reason women are better at language is because females have a larger and thicker corpus callosum, which is a bundle of neurons that connects the two hemispheres of the brain and allows them…...

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References

Bergen, D. (2002). The role of pretend play in children's cognitive development. Early Childhood Research and Practice, 4(1), 193-483.

Block, C. (2003). Literacy difficulties: diagnosis and instruction for reading specialists and classroom teachers. (2nd ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

Church, E. (n.d.) The importance of pretend play. Scholastic Parents. Retrieved January 30, 2010 from http://www2.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=10175

Slavin, R. (2009). Education psychology: theory and practice. New Jersey: Pearson.

Brain Factors That Influence Psychopathy
Psychopathy is among the conditions that burden the performance of most global states in the current contemporary society. A variety of factors causes psychopathy. The factors include biological, environmental, and brain factors. Psychopathy presents with different symptoms including, violence, deceitfulness, aggression, irresponsibility, lack of guilt, and impulsiveness among other symptoms associated with it. Significant researches conducted in the past have failed to create an understanding of the brain factors that cause the psychopathy. Therefore, the following essay presents an analysis of the brain factors that cause the psychopathy. The analysis presents results obtained from studies conducted to create an understanding of the relationship.

Introduction

According to Verona, Sprague, and Sadeh (2012) psychopathy refers to a condition characterized by diminished abilities for remorse and low abilities to control behaviors. Cale and Lilienfeld (2002) show in their definition that defining psychopathy should not only focus on the antisocial behaviors an…...

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References

Anderson, J.L., et al., (2014). Examining the Associations between Section III Antisocial Personality Disorder Traits and Psychopathy in Community and University Samples. Journal of Personality Disorders, 12(3), 1-23.

Cale, E.M., & Lilienfeld, S.O. (2002). Histrionic Personality Disorder and Antisocial Personality Disorder: Sex-Differentiated Manifestations of Psychopathy?. Journal of Personality Disorders, 16(1), 52-72.

Coid, J., & Ullrich, S. (2010). Antisocial Personality Disorder Is On A Continuum With Psychopathy. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 51(4), 426-433.

Harmer, C., Perrett, D., Cowen, P., & Goodwin, G. (2001). Administration of the beta-adrenoceptor blocker propranolol impairs the processing of facial expressions of sadness. Psychopharmacology, 154(4), 383-389.

" This allows the palm of the hand to go either up or down when in motion. The radius and the ulna connect with the bones which that are attached to the wrist and hand.
The thumbs of the human hand make it possible for the hand to lift and carry objects. The movement of the human hand is due to evolutionary development of bipedalism. The human hand consists of twenty seven bones. The wrist has cube shaped bones placed in rows of two or four each. The palm of the hand consists of bones called the carpals. hen lifting a glass of water the striated muscle pulls the radius and ulna allowing the arm to reach for the glass. The flexor muscles in the hand and fingers are used to flex the fingers around the glass making it possible to grip. The flexors which are located near the elbow allow…...

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Work Cited

"sliding filament theory." A Dictionary of Biology. 2004. Feb 13, 2010.

Farris (1990) cites Glasser's Control Theory as a foundation for developing activities to motivate adolescent learners. Briefly this theory asserts humans have five basic needs: the need for survival, belonging, power, freedom and fun. Effective teachers recognize and respond to students' needs and a critical part of that response lies in helping students accept and maintain that essential control.

Farris (1990) proposes possible classroom responses designed to meet these needs. To satisfy the need to belong a teacher should create a classroom with an accepting atmosphere, create a sense of ownership, recognize student's attempts to be accepted, praise students' performance, teach using groups, and discipline or reprimand in private whenever possible to avoid humiliating students. The need for freedom can be addressed by involving students in rule making, providing opportunities for free expression, encouraging creativity in assignments, and possibly consider eliminating assigned seating. The need for power can be addressed by…...

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References

Caissy, G. (1986, November/December). Early adolescence: The physical transition. FWTAO newsletter.

Caissy, G. (1987a, January). Early adolecscence: A time of stormy emotions. FWTAO newsletter.

Caissy, G. (1987b, February/March). Early adolecscence: The social demension. FWTAO newsletter.

Caissy, G. (1987c, June). Early adolecscence: The intellectual domain. FWTAO newsletter.

Teenager's Brain
A Teenagers Brain

The teenage brain is different from the normal adult's brain in which "…various parts of the brain work together to evaluate choices, make decisions and act accordingly in each situation." (Edmonds, 2010) The teenage brain can be compared to an entertainment center, according to Edmonds "that hasn't been fully hooked up. There are loose wires, so that the speaker system isn't working with the DVD players, which in turn hasn't been formatted to work with the television yet. And to top it all off, the remote control hasn't even arrived." (2010)

Brain Development

Edmonds (2010) explains that the remote control for the brain is the 'prefrontal cortex' described as "a section of the brain that weighs outcomes, forms judgments, and controls impulses and emotions. This section of the brain also helps people understand one another." (Edmonds, 2010) Synapses are used by the prefrontal cortex in communicating with other…...

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References

Edmonds, M. (2010) Are Teenage Brains Really Different From Adult Brains? Discovery Health. Brain and Central Nervous System. Retrieved from:  http://health.howstuffworks.com/human-body/systems/nervous-system/teenage-brain2.htm 

Adolescent Brain Development (2002) ACT for Youth -- Upstate Center of Excellence. Cornell University, University of Rochester and the NYS Center for School Safety. May 2002. Research Facts and Findings. Retrieved from:  http://www.actforyouth.net/documents/may02factsheetadolbraindev.pdf 

Sohn, Emily (2005) Teen Brains, Under Construction. Science News. 28 Sept 2005. Retrieved from:  http://www.sciencenewsforkids.org/articles/20050928/Feature1.asp 

Winters, KC and McLellan, AT (2008) Adolescent Brain Development and Drug Abuse. Jan 2008. TRI Science Addiction (Treatment Research Institute) Philadelphia PA Retrieved from:  http://www.tresearch.org/archives/2008Jan_TeenBrain.pdf

Mind and the Brain by Schwartz and Begley
In their book, The Mind and the Brain: Neuroplasticity and the Power of Mental Force, Jeffrey Schwartz and Sharon Begley look into the concept of the mind as something separate and distinct from the physical brain. They do so by beginning with a discussion of behaviorism, an approach that has had tremendous influence on the world of psychology, not just in theory but in shaping of treatments for people who exhibited disordered or disturbed reasoning. They talk about how behaviorism strips the humanity from people, placing human learning on roughly the same level as animal conditioning. Moreover, they also discuss the idea that, even if behaviorist approaches can effectuate therapeutic results, such as in habituation training for patients suffering from Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder, there are other means that do not involve the same level of cruelty towards the patients, but can still achieve…...

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References

Schwartz, J. & Begley, S. (2002). The Mind and the Brain: Neuroplasticity and the Power of Mental Force. New York: Regan Books.

.....backed by other research works, is chiefly grounded in Luby and coworkers' 2013 research project titled "The Effects of Poverty on Childhood Brain Development: The Mediating Effect of Caregiving and Stressful Life Events". It was obtained from EBSCOhost's database via a search activity, utilizing the expression "poverty and the brain".
Poverty during the early childhood stage of life has an adverse effect on the development of the individual's brain, as indicated by school-goers' MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scans (Lipina & Colombo, 2009; Lende, 2012). That environmental stimuli serve to enhance the production of hippocampal cells within lab animals in comparison to animals subject to relatively rare stimuli is an established fact ("Poverty, neglect in childhood...", 2013). This research work aimed at ascertaining whether or not the early childhood income-needs ratio influences school age kids' brain development and at examining the mediating factors of the abovementioned influence.

For analyzing the impacts destitution had…...

Thesis Statement: Breastfeeding offers substantial benefits for both mothers and infants, promoting optimal health outcomes and fostering a unique bond between them. Its advantages range from providing essential nutrients to reducing the risk of diseases and enhancing cognitive development in infants, while also providing health benefits and convenience for mothers.

Introduction:

The practice of breastfeeding has been recognized as a fundamental aspect of parenting, providing infants with the optimal nutrition they need to thrive. This thesis delves into the multitude of benefits breastfeeding offers to both mothers and their infants, highlighting the positive impact it can have on health, development, and emotional....

I. Introduction
A. Brief overview of autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
B. Explanation of the presence of sex differences in individuals with ASD
C. Thesis statement: This essay will explore how sex differences present in individuals with autism.

II. Background information on autism
A. Definition of ASD
B. Statistics on the prevalence of ASD
C. Common symptoms and characteristics of ASD

III. Sex differences in autism
A. Prevalence of ASD in males vs. females
B. Differences in symptom presentation between males and females with ASD
C. Factors that may contribute to sex differences in ASD

IV. Biological differences
A. Overview of biological factors that....

## Outline for an Essay on Sex Differences in Autism

### I. Introduction

A. Hook: Begin with a captivating fact or statistic about sex differences in autism.
B. Thesis Statement: Clearly state the central argument of the essay: Sex differences present in the manifestation and diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

### II. Body Paragraph 1: Prevalence and Diagnosis

A. Discuss the differences in prevalence rates between males and females.
B. Explain the potential reasons for the underdiagnosis of females with ASD.
C. Describe the specific differences in diagnostic criteria for males and females.

### III. Body Paragraph 2: Symptom Manifestations

A. Explore....

The Neurobiology of ADHD: Exploring the Genetic and Environmental Influences

Introduction

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition that affects an individual's attention, behavior, and emotional regulation. Biological factors, including genetic and environmental influences, play significant roles in the development and manifestation of ADHD. This essay will delve into the neurobiology of ADHD, examining its genetic basis, environmental risk factors, and the interplay between these factors.

Genetic Basis of ADHD

Twin and family studies have consistently demonstrated a strong genetic component in ADHD. Research has identified several susceptibility genes located on different chromosomes that have been linked to the disorder. These genes are....