The model assumes constant growth of dividends. The required rate of return is the discount rate. Next year's dividends are the starting point upon which the dividend growth is calculated and brought back to present value. The problem with using this model is that it assumes that the market does not ascribe any value to the potential for capital gains. Many investors seek capital gains (indeed, if stock prices were explicitly tied to dividends, this is the only way they would make money as the stock price would be the present value of future cash flows).
The model also assumes a current dividend, which many companies do not offer. They merely re-invest their profits. If a future dividend is assumed, and the value of the stock is theoretically derived from those future cash flows, there must be an assumption of when a dividend will be paid and for how much.…...

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Works Cited

Bond calculator from Smartmoney.com. Retrieved July 7, 2008 at  http://www.smartmoney.com/onebond/index.cfm?story=bondcalculator 

No author. (2006). Yield Curve. Investopedia. Retrieved July 7, 2008 at  

Bond Selection
A "make-whole" call allows the issuer of a bond to pay off the bond early. The payment to the bondholder is based on the net present value of the future payments remaining on the bond (Investopedia, 2012). This provision does not necessarily make the investors whole. The investors receive the net present value of the future payments on the bond. For the investor, the discount rate used to calculate the net present value should be the same rate at which the investor can re-invest those funds with the same risk level. In many cases, however, the discount rate used for the NPV payment would either be written into the provision, or would be determined by the bond issuer. Thus, the discount rate could be a higher or lower than the reinvestment rate of the investor. So while there is no guarantee that this provision would fail to make the…...

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Works Cited:

Investopedia. (2012). Make whole call provision. Investopedia. Retrieved February 12, 2012 from  

Bonds
Nora Chavez, the former finance manager for the city of San Antonio, Texas and current Board member to the energy company in San Antonio presented a process for the issuance of general obligation bonds. Her area of expertise was extolled upon the fact that she now is employed by an Investment Banking firm that handles general obligation bonds on a consistent and continuing basis.

Chavez, first explained to her audience that a municipal bond, and in this case she focused on general obligation bonds, is issued by cities, states, and public entities in search of long-term capital improvement dollars to fund projects such as roads, buildings, and other major projects. She emphasized the fact that each project, and the issuance of bonds to pay for the projects, had to first be approved by voters. Additionally, issuing general obligation bonds also meant that the taxing entity charged with the issuance must…...

Iacobucci and Triantis clarify tat any type of corporation wit legal personood qualifies to issue debt as long as it can own property, enter contracts and be sued.

Corporates can be issued in bearer form, were te older of te actual certificate is required to update information periodically wit te trustee or issuer, or as "registry" bonds, wit te owner named but wic carry no material coupons. "Book entry" bonds reside in a central securities depository and are registered wit te broker, wo ten assigns interest to te owner's brokerage account. Corporate bonds can be unsecured "debentures," or backed by specific assets identified in te indenture. First-mortgage bonds are backed by lien against real estate owned by te debt-incurring firm; collateral trust issues are backed by oter financial assets owned by te corporation, and "Equipment Trust Certificates" are tied to large real assets oter tan real estate. All tese types of…...

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http://apps.finra.org/investor_information/smart/bonds/306000.asp

9. Justyna Franc-Dabrowska, "Does Dividend Policy Follow the Capital Structure Theory?," Managing Global Transitions 7, no. 4: 367 -- 382, p. 368. Rodolfo Apreda sets out the historical development of the theory of capital structure from Modigliani and Miller in 1958 to his own proposed adjustment for legal risk in a particularly clear and succinct presentation in "Cost Of Capital Adjusted For Governance Risk Through A Multiplicative Model Of Expected Returns," University Of Cema Center for the Study of Public and Private Governance, Working Paper Series, November 2008, number 383. papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1305220. The Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco (Simon Kwan, "Capital Structure in Banking," FRBSF Economic Letter 2009-37 (7 Dec. 2009) clarifies that evaluation methodologies continue to evolve and there may be conflicting decision thresholds under simultaneous but varying evaluation schema.

10. Iacobucci and Triantis (2007), ibid.

This does not diminish the logic of his arguments, though. Fonagy is very clear and direct when making a link between aspects of the infant relationship during the attachment phase and later adult behaviors and personalities, and these show a clearly observable and empirically founded cause-and-effect relationship, for the most part. The development of the theory of mind," for instance, is clearly established by the experiments Fonagy details in the article, and its implications on the parent-child relationship -- especially in the sense that the parent's observational capacity of the child's mind is important to the formation of the theory of mind -- are clearly drawn. So, too, are the recommendations Fonagy makes for adjusting parenting styles based on his findings.

Despite a slight hesitation in wholeheartedly accepting Fonagy's conclusions, they still have a very high degree of relevance and utility for social work practice. This utility is twofold. First, the…...

When one atom gives up or loses an electron, the atom will reduce in size. When an atom gains or receives an electron, the atom will grow in size. Ionic bonds lead to the formation of crystalline solids with high melting points and can be dissolved in water and other polar solvents. The ionic compounds formed through bonding are always solid and are good conductors of electricity.
Ionic bonds are formed when a metallic element on the Periodic Table donates one or more electrons and forms a positive ion, or cation, and has a stable electron configuration. These positive ions enter a non-metallic element causing it to form a negative electron, or anion that has a stable electron configuration. Electrostatic forces attract cations and anions to each other. Ionic compounds include NaCl, or sodium chloride commonly known as table salt, and MgO, also known as magnesium oxide.

Covalent bonds do not…...

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Reference List:

Decelles, P. 2001. "Chemical Bonds." The Entangled Bank, Dr. Paul's Virtually Biology Show.

Web. Retrieved from

To determine the degree to which the bonds of a single company, for example Champion International, are correlated with the market, we must follow the same method as was used for the Vanguard portfolios. The returns on the different Champion bonds must be gathered, as much the returns on the market for the time period studied. e are seeking to determine a beta for the debt. A regression analysis will reveal this beta. The beta will then be applied within the context of CAPM, to give an expected return.

hen the beta is very low, this indicates that idiosyncratic risk is more important in explaining the expected return of the bond. The expected risk, as derived from CAPM, should be evaluated against the expected yield of the bond as priced by the open market. The degree to which the expected yield differs from the expected return as calculated using CAPM will…...

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Works Cited:

Gebhardt, William R.' Hvidkjaer, Soren; Swaminathan, Bhaskaran. (2004). The Cross-Section of Expected Corporate Bond Returns: Betas or Characterstics? Journal of Financial Economics. Vol. 75 pp85-114.

Obligation Bonds
Two types of municipal bonds exist, revenue bonds and general obligation (GO) bonds. General obligation bonds offer investors a relatively safe investment opportunity while providing states and local governments with funds for community improvement. These bonds are debt instruments issued by states and local governments to raise funds for public works. General obligation bonds are backed by the full faith and credit of the issuing municipality. That is, the municipality commits its full resources to paying bondholders, including general taxation and the ability to raise more funds through credit. The ability to back up bond payments with tax funds is what makes GO bonds distinct from revenue bonds, which are repaid using the revenue generated by the specific project the bonds are issued to fund.

General obligation bonds give municipalities a means to raise funds for projects that do not provide direct sources of revenue such as roads, bridges,…...

Crystalline solids with high melting points are formed through ionic bonding. These crystalline solids can be dissolved in water or other polar solvents. Ionic compounds are solid and good conductors of electricity (Ophardt, 2003).
Additionally, ionic bonds are formed when a metallic element gives up one or more electrons thus forming a positive ion. A positive ion is also known as a cation and has a stable electron configuration. Cations enter non-metallic elements and cause it to become a negative electron. These negative electrons are also known as anions and also have a stable electron configurations. Electrostatic forces attract cations and anions to each other. Examples of ionic compounds include calcium chloride, CaCl2, and potassium oxide, K2O (Clark, 2000).

Covalent bonds, on the other hand, do not give up, gain, or transfer electrons, but rather share electrons equally. Covalent bonds form between atoms in a compound when atoms have a similar…...

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Reference:

Clark, J. (2000). "Ionic (Electrovalent) Bonding." Chemguide: Helping You Understand

Chemistry. Retrieved from

Decelles, P. (2001). "Chemical Bonds." The Entangled Bank, Dr. Paul's Virtually Biology

Show. Web. Retrieved from

Value of Money: Bonds
Present value, future value, and the discounted value of a stream of future revenues form the fundamental basis for one of the crucial underpinnings of finance dynamics; the time value of money. While the broad notion of the concept is the tenet that "all things being equal, it is better to have money now rather than later" (Carther, S. September 1, 2008); this posit allows for a deeper and strategic insight into the world of finance, investment, and capital budgeting through analysis of the relative value of a dollar at a given time. In this context there is utility in analyzing the present and future value of a $2,000 Comcast bond issue in comparison with rivals such as AT&T, T-Mobile, and Verizon Communications.

How Much Would You Pay for This Bond Today?

In the telecommunications industry, Comcast is a major player in providing access and content to its…...

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References

Carther, S. (September 1, 2008). Understanding the Time Value of Money. Investopedia.

Retrieved January 8, 2012 from  http://www.investopedia.com /articles/03/082703.asp#12990857254822&close

CNNMoney.com. (2011). Fortune 500. Comcast. CNNMoney.com. Retrieved January 8,

2012 from  http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/fortune500/2011/snapshots/5035.html

In a rising interest rate environment, how would bond values change over time? As a bond investor, what measures would you take to manage rate risk?In a rising interest rate environment, bond prices would go down. The reason is that investors can now achieve a higher yield than what was previously accessible. This will result in current yields for bonds selling at par to be inadequate relative to higher yield bonds. To compensate for this, the bonds will fall in price so that the yields match those that are prevailing in the market. The opposite will occur when interest rates fall. In fact, this is exactly what has occurred in the market as investors have benefited from a near 2-decade bond bull market where interest rates have fallen and bond investors have profited.To manage risk, bond investors should have a portfolio that has a shorter duration. That way, they can…...

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References

1. Amiram, D., A. Kalay, A. Kalay and N. B. Ozel. 2018. Information asymmetry and the bond coupon choice. The Accounting Review (March): 37-59

For example, if the Fed sees inflation as a risk going forward, the market will place a weighting on that statement, allocating some form of increased interest rate to the future cash flows.
At the time of course, the exact implications of the Fed's comments are unknown. They imply that rates may move in one direction or another, but they are not an actual movement and the Fed reserves the right to change its mind before it meets again. The bond market is thus working with imperfect information. This can lead to general price movements but of unknown quantity. Over time, a reasonable correlation can be established, such as the elasticity of bond prices in relation to, for example, strong warnings from the Fed about inflation. Such a correlation can be drawn with a large enough sample size that it can be used in bond prices.

Overall, though, the exercise still…...

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Works Cited:

No author. (2009). Advanced Bond Concepts: Bond Pricing. Investopedia. Retrieved April 29, 2009 from  http://www.investopedia.com /university/advancedbond/advancedbond2.asp

No author. (2009). The Grand Illusion. The Economist. Retrieved April 29, 2009 from  http://www.economist.com/finance/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13240822 

Heakal, Reem. (2009). Forces Behind Interest Rates. Investopedia. Retrieved April 29, 2009 from

Bond-buyers are also traditionally older and might have been more leery about investing in a new technology such as the Internet during the 1990s.
The choice of these companies to pay a higher rate of return to compensate for the greater risk would have defeated the purpose of the corporation issuing bonds in the first place, as what makes the issuing of bonds so attractive is that the interest rates on bonds that corporations must pay investors are traditionally lower than rates for most other types of borrowing ("How Corporations Raise Capital," U.S. Department of State, 2007). For young, untried companies like the Internet companies of the 1990s this would not necessarily be the case, thus it made more sense to generate revenue through issuing common stock, as if the company faltered for a time, this would not have to be repaid, and buyers of stock were the right, less-risk…...

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Works Cited

Comparing Stocks, Bonds, and Cash Equivalents." American Funds. 6 Jul 2007.  http://myretirement.retire.americanfunds.com/planning/investing/comparing.htm 

How Corporations Raise Capital." U.S. Department of State." About.com. Jul 6, 2007.  http://economics.about.com/od/smallbigbusiness/a/corp_capital.htm

ond Review
Compare and summarize a separate article on why companies or individuals invest in bonds.

There are a variety of reasons as to why a corporation or an individual will purchase bonds. Some of the most notable that were previously discussed include: safety, steady returns and they are providing diversification to the portfolio. To determine the accuracy of these findings we will compare these ideas with those from a piece literature that will be examined. Once this takes place, it will provide specific insights about the overall advantages that bonds are offering to: corporations and individuals.

The article that we will be examining is titled the Tax Advantages of Pension Fund Investments in onds. This was selected, because it can provide specific insights about why this particular asset class has become so popular. At the same time, it will offer historical insights about the advantages that bonds have over other areas of…...

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Bibliography

Black, Fisher. "The Tax Advantages of Pension Fund Investments in Bonds." NBER Working Paper, 1980. Web. 15 May 2011.

50) to 2097 -- the price of this bond is of $58 (Yahoo Finance, 2009).
Despite their past low popularity, the investors are now beginning to seek more vividly the Ford preferred stock (F-PF) and this is generally explained by the fact that the popularity of the common stock has suffered demises. The company officials have decided to allow owners of common stocks to exchange them with preferred stocks and vice versa, in order to increase investor satisfaction. The preferred stock is being traded at a value of $38.86. Preferred stocks are among the riskiest investments and the specialized advice is that they be kept for long periods of time, but in small amounts. Additionally, it is necessary to diversify the portfolio and the preferred stock should not make up more than one percent (Neubert, 2007).

eferences:

Neubert, D., 2007, Ford Preferred (F-PS): Used Only with Diversification, The Panelist, http://thepanelist.com/Neubert%27s_Trades/Neuberts_Trades/_20070805502/last accessed on July…...

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References:

Neubert, D., 2007, Ford Preferred (F-PS): Used Only with Diversification, The Panelist, accessed on July 8, 2009http://thepanelist.com/Neubert%27s_Trades/Neuberts_Trades/_20070805502/last

2009, Bond Screener at Yahoo Finance, last accessed on July 8, 2009http://reports.finance.yahoo.com/z1?is=ford

2009, Investopedia,   last accessed on July 8, 2009http://www.investopedia.com 

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Schreiner provides a platform for women to support each other in Woman's Rose through various means:

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Here are a few unique and fresh essay topics for a thesis on affordability of housing:

1. Examining the impact of tiny house communities on housing affordability and community development
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3. Investigating the potential of modular and prefabricated housing as a solution for affordable housing shortages
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5. Evaluating the intersectionality of race, class, and housing affordability in urban planning and policy-making decisions.
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