Religious LiteracyIntroductionReligion is important to people because it not only gives them an individual identity but it also gives them a group identity. It fosters a sense of personal belief as well as a sense of community and belonging. Religions are diverse around the world. The main religions include Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Hinduism. Buddhism is not so much a religion as a philosophy or way of life. But even among the main religious traditions, there are different sects and belief systems and ways of living. Pagan religions still exist in some parts of the world, and in other parts atheism is a growing trend. Because all of these belief systems can clash, and people can come into conflict with one another over these beliefs religion is sometimes blamed as being the cause of all wars. But the reality is that people who hold strong beliefs tend to act according…...

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References

Barnard, T. (2015). The role of religion in African conflicts: the cases of Nigeria and Sudan. Retrieved from  https://www.academia.edu/715044/THE_ROLE_OF_RELIGION_IN_AFRICAN_CONFLICTS_THE_CASES_OF_NIGERIA_AND_SUDAN 

Center for International Security and Cooperation. (2019). Al Shabaab. Retrieved from  https://cisac.fsi.stanford.edu/mappingmilitants/profiles/al-shabaab 

Chitando, E., & Tarusarira, J. (Eds.). (2019). Religion and human security in Africa. Routledge.

Jihadis Networks and their BackgroundsWhat is a jihadis network?A jihadis network is a structure that has an informal, fluctuating leadership, and flexible membership that is made up of nodes who are Moslems practicing "jihads" and by the links that are created through these nodes (Canals, 2009). Despite the informal structure, there is a definite pattern of connections between nodes, and they communicate intending to achieve a common objective (Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, 2006). An example of this is the West African Boko Haram terror network.Where does your selected group primarily operate? (cite specific geographic locations such as country, region or province)Boko Haram began and still has its primary operations in Nigeria. The group's official name is Jama'atu Ahlis Sunna Lidda'awatu wal-Jihad, Arabic for "people committed to the propagation of the prophet's teachings and Jihad" (Chothia, 2016). Mohammed Yusuf founded Boko Haram in 2002, and its operations were…...

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References

Canals, J. J. M. (2009). Fourth-generation warfare: Jihadist networks and percolation. Mathematical and computer modeling, 50(5-6), 896-909.

Chothia, F. (2016). Who Are Nigeria\\\\\\'s Boko Haram Islamist Group?. BBC News, November 24.

Duncan, A. (2018). Revitalizing US strategy in Nigeria to address Boko Haram. The Strategy Bridge, 6.

Agbiboa, D.E. (2013a). Peace at Daggers Drawn? Boko Haram and the State of Emergency in Nigeria. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 37(1): 41-67.
Boko Haram technically started in 2002 but has been especially active since 2009. Since then, the organization has worked hard to discredit the Nigerian government and replace it with an Islamic state based on Sharia law. Boko Haram is inspired by international radical Islam, and has taken root in northeastern Nigeria. Violence is integral to the Boko Haram methods. More than 3500 people have died so far directly due to Boko Haram.

The Nigerian government has tried negotiations and offers of amnesty in exchange for peace, but mutual mistrust has stalled diplomacy. Both carrot and stick approaches have failed. Moreover, Boko Haram is relatively fragmented, and different cells have different approaches to the Nigerian government and different political philosophies. Ultimately, Boko Haram must be understood within its historical,…...

Diffusion of innovation theory refers to the spread of ideas, materials, or strategies and can be applied both to counterterrorism policies or terrorist tactics themselves. By paying attention to the patterns of diffusion, governments can make more informed counterterrorism decisions or policies. At the same time, diffusion of innovation can show how terrorist tactics spread from one group to another or how extremism spreads throughout a region.
Applied to Boko Haram, the diffusion of innovation theory can show how terrorist tactics used by one extremist group spread or how extremist ideology spreads from one region or group to another. Likewise, diffusion of innovation can help the government of Nigeria better cultivate an informed and potentially evidence-based response policy by adopting counterterrorism tactics used by other nations in similar situations. For example, Boushey (2012) shows how public policy innovations are diffused. Punctuated equilibrium is a method of diffusion in which feedback both…...

Annotated Bibliography
Agbiboa, D.E. (2013a). Peace at Daggers Drawn? Boko Haram and the State of Emergency in Nigeria. Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 37(1): 41-67.

One of the leading analysts on Boko Haram here provides a detailed overview of the group, discussing how Boko Haram emerged out of the chaotic instability in northern Nigeria, what specific demands and issues the group has presented and how those demands have changed, how they recruit, and also the methods Boko Haram uses to facilitate and carry out its operations. According to Abgiboa (2013a), "more than 3,500 people have died in Nigeria since 2009," (p. 41). Negotiations with the group have failed, due in part to "distrust on both sides" as well as Boko Haram's factionalization (p. 41). The factions emerging in Boko Haram may offer clues as to how to destabilize the group from the inside.

Agbiboa, D.E. (2013b). Why Boko Haram Exists: The Relative Deprivation…...

Ending Terrorism in Africa: Diverging Approaches for Fighting Boko Haram Insurgency Boko Haram insurgency has been a plague to peace and prosperity in Nigeria. In recent years, the organization has become increasingly more violent and connected with transnational terrorist organizations. Boko Haram threatens to destabilize Nigeria, as the group has carried out attacks on Nigerian infrastructure in addition to high-profile events like the abduction of school children in 2014 (Blanchard, 2014). Although the roots of Boko Haram can be traced to global Islamic fundamentalism, in Nigeria there are a host of more salient political, social, and economic problems that have made it possible for Boko Haram to become increasingly powerful and relevant. The responses to Boko Haram have failed to address these underlying causes, instead relying on reactionary tactics including violence or simply remaining indifferent to the situation Anyadike (2013). A sensible and workable strategy is needed to eliminate Boko Haram,…...

Conceptualizing Boko Haram is challenging, requiring a multifaceted theoretical framework. Boko Haram did not emerge out of a vacuum. It is hypothesized that Boko Haram has been influenced by other radical groups as well as trans-national religious extremism. Moreover, it is hypothesized that Boko Haram functions as a political opposition group. The theoretical framework used to characterize the political function and focus of Boko Haram is based on social alienation and particularly the Frustration-Aggression theoretical framework as suggested by Omadjohwoefe (2013). Frustration-Aggression theory is related to conflict theory, in that systematic alienation and oppression lead to widespread frustration and despair, and the outlet for that despair is violence. Violence has been normalized within the context of quasi-religious ideology, which simultaneously promises to rectify corruption in the government and replace the existing regime with one that claims to empower the disenfranchised elements of Nigerian society. Moreover, the dependent variable in the…...

Nigeria Election and Media Coverage
The Nigerian elections committee has postponed the national election until March 28, 2015. The election was scheduled to take place on February 14, but growing concerns about violence and security issues have triggered this cautionary response. Yet, there are some who believe that postponement will not substantially result in improved security, and instead will worsen conditions. Nigeria's security chiefs are not confident that they can keep voters in the northeastern region of the country safe from the extremist militant group Boko Haram. Hundreds of schoolgirls were abducted in the northeast Nigeria last spring, and Boko Haram fighters attacked a village in neighboring Chad in February.

President Goodluck Johnathan's decision to postpone the election until security improves does not align with his position for most of 2014 in which he attempted to diminish the militant threat. As Boko Haram's attacks have become more blatantly daring, the popularity of…...

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References

____. (2015, February 16). The Editorial Board. Nigeria's miserable choices. The New York Times. Retrieved from  http://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/16/opinion/nigerias-miserable-choices.html?_r=0 

____. (2015, February 19). Nigeria Ambassador Adefuye refutes New York Times editorial on election postponement. Sahara Reporters. Retrieved from  http://saharareporters.com/2015/02/19/nigeria-ambassador-adefuye-refutes-new-york-times-editorial-election-postponement 

____. (2015, February 8). Muhammadu Buhari: Nigeria "reduced to a failed state." Al Jazeera. Retrieved from  http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/talktojazeera/2015/02/muhammadu-buhari-nigeria-reduced-failed-state-150208121316691.html

Boko-Haram
In order to effectively neutralize the Boko Haram in Nigeria, I suggest a combination of strategies including the use of military force combined with education and economic empowerment programs. The Nigerian authorities need to incorporate partnerships and conduct a host of operations mentioned above within the Boko Haram strongholds. This model describes the aims and contribution of the various stakeholders. The implementation of such a model, collectively, will enable the authorities to undermine the strengths of Boko Haram on economic, psychological and military front (Siollun, 2015).

Although the military alone cannot stop the insurgency, it has a critical role to play in the equation. The military can be used to buy quiet time for the government to roll programs that will handicap the group's operations and legitimacy among its populations. The Nigerian military can be deployed to either suppress the insurgency or compel the fighters into a ceasefire. For such action…...

STAKEHOLDERS
There is a multitude of stakeholders in the case study of Boko Haram in the counterterrorism in Africa movement. The main stakeholder is the Christian government in Nigeria that is systematically losing territory to this terrorist organization. Another prominent stakeholder is the lawful citizens of that government. These citizens are routinely losing family members to instances of kidnapping at the hands of this organization (Burke, 2016). They are also being injured and murdered by the terrorist efforts of this organization (Urmacher and Sheridan, 2016). Finally, Boko Haram itself is a stakeholder in this case study. Its very livelihood depends on engaging in the very acts of terror that this case study is seeking to counteract and ultimately, undermine.

ROLES IN THE EVALUATION PROCESS

The roles in the evaluation process of the Nigerian government is pivotal to the success of this case study. It must comply with the needs of the researchers. Specifically,…...

.....ending terrorism in Africa, the methods employed should be oriented towards measuring outputs. The outputs that are expected with this particular study are the ending of terrorism in Africa. The inputs are the various strategies and programs that are implemented in order to bring about this outcome. The outcome has to be measured in a quantitative manner in order that a statistical analysis can be performed. Thus, the type of quantitative study that could be utilized here may depend upon the type of evaluation that is to be undertaken.
Two types of evaluations could be used here -- a vertical evaluation or a horizontal evaluation. A vertical evaluation is used to measure "specific programs from inception to outcome" while a horizontal evaluation is used to assess "the efforts undertaken by multiple agencies and entities to support a specific government action plan or strategy" (Romaniuk, Fink, 2012, p. 13).

A correlational design would…...

Shi'ism in the World & the Shiite Islamic Sect in Nigeria
Shi'ism in the World

History, Objectives & General Outlook

Shiite Muslims make up the second biggest denomination of Islam, with the biggest numbers being represented by the Sunnis. The Shiite Muslims form about fifteen percent of Muslims. However, they are dominant in the nations of Iran, Azerbaijan, Iraq and Bahrain. In addition, Muslims have a plurality in Yemen and Lebanon too (Cave, 2006). These two distinct groups within the Islam community first differed and deviated from each other following the death of Prophet Muhammad in 632. The divide arose from the fact that the followers were not able to come to an agreement as to whether it was right to select bloodline successors or able leaders most capable of following and propagating the tenets of the Muslim faith (Fuller and Francke, 2000).

The Shiite community commenced during the 650s, after the son-in-law of…...

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References

Akhavi, S. (1983). The ideology and praxis of Shi'ism in the Iranian revolution. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 25(02), 195-221.

Campbell, J. (2015). "Massacre" of Shia in Northern Nigeria an Opening for Iran. Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 5 January 2016 from:  http://blogs.cfr.org/campbell/2015/12/16/massacre-of-shia-in-northern-nigeria-an-opening-for-iran/ 

Cave, D. (2006). Telling Sunni from Shiite. The New York Times. Retrieved 5 January 2016 from:shttp://topics.nytimes.com/top/reference/timestopics/subjects/s/shiite_muslims/index.html

Center for Security Policy. (2014). Will Sunni-Shia tensions spread to Nigeria? Retrieved 5 January 2016 from:  https://www.centerforsecuritypolicy.org/2014/11/03/will-sunni-shia-tensions-spread-to-nigeria/

New Terrorism -- Risk Management
In the aftermath of the carnage created by terrorists on September 11, 2001, in which 2,977 people were killed (in the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and in hijacked commercial jetliners), the United States government initiated a "war on terror." That war has yet to be won, and may never be won because terrorists have found new ways of launching attacks and where there once was just Osama bin Laden's al Qaeda to cope with, now there are numerous jihadist offshoots like ISIS and oko Haram, among others. Some observers call this current era "new terrorism" and in general when a previously unknown terror group makes its bloody mark on innocent people, those actions could also be called new terrorism. However, this paper looks at the concept of what is known as new terrorism, at the realities created by the terrorism witnessed in the news reports…...

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Bibliography

Ackerman, S.2015. 'FBI chief wants 'backdoor access' to encrypted communications to fight ISIS'. The Guardian. Retrieved July 28, 2015.

Baranoff, E.G. 2004. 'Risk Management: A Focus on a More Holistic Approach Three Years After September 11. Journal of Insurance Regulation, 22(4), 71-80.

Crenshaw, M. 2007. 'The Debate over "New" vs. "Old" Terrorism'. Center for International Security and Cooperation. Stanford University. Retrieved July 28, 2015, from http://www.cisac.fsi.standord.edu.

Lemyre, L., Turner, M.C., Lee, J.E.C., and Krewski, D. 2006. Public Perception of Terrorism Threats and Related Information Sources in Canada: Implications for the Management of Terrorism Risks. Journal of Risk Research, 9(7), 755-774.

Terrorism
Define and discuss terrorism. Who chooses to participate in a terrorist campaign, and why? Evaluate such mitigating factors as politics, nationalism, and religion.

'Failed states' are defined as states that can no "longer perform basic functions such as education, security, or governance, usually due to fractious violence or extreme poverty" (Failed states, 2012, Global Policy). This has potentially disastrous consequences not simply for the residents of the state itself but for all nation-states. "Within this power vacuum, people fall victim to competing factions and crime" such as terrorism (Failed states, 2012, Global Policy). The beliefs of terrorists can be linked in some instances to the mentality spawned by a failed state -- that personal accomplishments are meaningless and the only hope can be found in the hereafter.

I would define terrorism as violent actions outside of the context of the conventional rules of war that specifically target civilians or defenseless persons…...

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Ola, L. (2014). Boko Haram offers to swap kidnapped Nigerian girls for prisoners. Reuters.

Retrieved from:

 http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/05/12/us-nigeria-girls-idUSBREA4A0B620140512

eligion and War
As long as religion has been part of human history, it has been the cause of several kinds of conflict. These conflicts could be minor disagreements between individuals, such as the one regarding a certain point of theology. Arguments could also arise among groups, such as different denominations of Christianity. This is much like the above-mentioned theological differences; only on a wider scale. On a less friendly footing, extreme types of conflict such as intolerance towards other religions and certain social groups is also not unusual among religions. The most extreme form of religious conflict is probably war. Here too, there are many examples, including the Christian Crusades spawned by Constantine and one of his visions. In ancient Old Testament times, the Israelites were constantly battling other nations in the name of their God. A victory would then mean that God has favored them, while a defeat would…...

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References

Abizadeh, A. (2011, May) Hobbes on the Causes of War: A Disagreement Theory. American Political Science Review. 105 (2). Retrieved from:  http://profs-polisci.mcgill.ca/ 

Casimir, A., Nwaoga, C.T., and Ogbozor, C. (2014). Religion, Violence, Poverty and Underdevelopment in West Africa: Issues and Challenges of Boko Haram Phenomenon in Nigeria. Open Journal of Philosophy. 4(1). Retrieved from:  http://www.scirp.org/journal/ojpp 

Glaser, S. (2012, Apr. 12). State and Religion: Austrian Quaker Nazi Identity in World War II. Thesis retrieved from:  http://thesis.haverford.edu/ 

McCullough, M. (2011, May). "My Brother's Keeper": Civil Religion, Messianic Interventionism, and the Spanish-American War of 1898. Thesis retrieved from: etd.library.vanderbilt.edu/