Native Americans in the 18th century contracted smallpox thanks to the U.S. soldiers in Fort Pitt giving them "some blankets and handkerchiefs" that were taken from patents in the infirmary with smallpox (heelis). It was a deliberate "attack" and wiped out many Indians. Also, during the American Revolutionary ar, England were known to have inoculated smallpox on civilians with the intention of spreading it to the Continental Army. In orld ar I (1915 through 1918) the Germans waged "an ambitious campaign of covert biological attack" by injecting horses and mules being sent to the Allies with glanders and anthrax (heelis).

The Japanese used B (8, 9, 10) in China during II; heelis writes that the Japanese "poisoned wells with microbial cultures, sprayed the ground with cultures" and left contaminated food for the Chinese army to eat and become ill. The Soviets are accused of having used biological weapons (tularemia) against Germany…...

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Works Cited

Center for Biosecurity. (2008). BioAgents and Epidemic Diseases Background

Information. Categorization and Ongoing Assessment of Biological Agents.

Retrieved June 23, 2009, from  http://www.upmc-biosecurity.org .

Ready America. (2009). Biological Threat. Retrieved June 23, 2009, from  http://www.ready.gov/america/beinformed/biological.html .

These efforts include: expansion of international efforts to prevent terrorist acquisition of biological agents, initiated Bioatch program to detect initial releases of biological weapons within the environment, launched food programs to carefully inspect foods for potential bioagents (with greater focus on foreign foods), expanded bioterrorism research (including Project Bioshield, a program to develop medical ripostes to biological agents), and increased medical stockpiles and training for dealing with bioterrorism attacks (Cordesman; Lindler, Lebeda, & Korch; Petsko; Fidler & Gostin). These efforts will help to both prevent the initial release of any biological agents within the general populace or environment, as well as effectively treat afflicted individuals and slow spread through appropriate treatments.
Once biological agents are released into the general population, the extent of disease spread and number of individuals afflicted will be significantly affected by the role and effectiveness of the government through quarantine and treatment (Cordesman; Lindler, Lebeda, &…...

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Works Cited

Cole, Leonard A. The Eleventh Plague. Macmillan, 2002. Print.

Cordesman, Anthony H. The challenge of biological terrorism. CSIS, 2005. Print.

Fidler, David P., and Lawrence O. Gostin. Biosecurity in the global age. Stanford University Press, 2008. Print.

Kortepeter, MG, and GW Parker. "Potential biological weapons threats." Emerging Infectious Diseases 5.4 (1999): 523-527. Print.

Introduction
The Threat of Biological Warfare by Homeland Security

Biological warfare, also known as germ warfare, is the deliberate use of biological agents such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, or toxins to cause harm to people, animals, or plants. In recent years, there has been an increasing concern about the potential use of biological warfare by terrorist organizations or rogue states. The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) plays a crucial role in protecting the United States against such threats.

Biological weapons have the potential to cause widespread devastation and chaos. They can be easily disseminated through the air, water, or food supply, making them difficult to detect and contain. A biological attack could result in mass casualties, economic disruption, and psychological trauma. Additionally, the effects of a biological attack may not be immediately apparent, making it challenging for authorities to respond effectively.

The DHS is responsible for coordinating efforts to prevent, detect, and respond to…...

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References

1. “Bioterrorism Overview.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, https://www.cdc.gov/bioterrorism/overview.html.

2. Tucker, Jonathan B. “Historical Trends Related to Bioterrorism: An Empirical Analysis.” Emerging Infectious Diseases, vol. 5, no. 4, 1999, pp. 498-504.

3. Koblentz, Gregory D. “Pathogens as Weapons: The International Security Implications of Biological Warfare.” International Security, vol. 28, no. 3, 2003, pp. 84-122.

4. Inglesby, Thomas V., et al. “Plague as a Biological Weapon: Medical and Public Health Management.” JAMA, vol. 283, no. 17, 2000, pp. 2281-2290.

The larger the region covered by the chemical agent, the more likely it will be to cause the widespread destruction for which the person or group is looking (Brophy & Fisher, 1959). Toxicity matters, of course, but the earliest uses were not about the level of toxicity the chemical agent possessed. They were more focused on how the toxic was absorbed. If the chemical agent could be absorbed through the clothing and skin, a gas mask would be useless against it and it would be more likely to work on a larger number of people (Burck & Flowerree, 1991).
July of 1917 saw the use of mustard gas begin (Brophy & Fisher, 1959). The Germans, once again, were the first to use this chemical. It easily passes through fabric and leather, and causes very painful burns to appear on the skin. There are two categories into which chemical agents like…...

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References

Alibek, K. And S. Handelman. (2000). Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World -- Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran it. Delta.

Appel, J.M. (2009). Is all fair in biological warfare? The controversy over genetically engineered biological weapons, Journal of Medical Ethics, Volume 35, pp. 429 -- 432.

Brophy, L.P. & George J.B. Fisher (1959). The Chemical Warfare Service: Organizing for War Office of the Chief of Military History.

Burck, Gordon M. And Charles C. Flowerree. (1991). International Handbook on Chemical Weapons Proliferation.

" Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. 22 Apr. 2009 .
Goldman, D. "The Generals and the Germs." Journal of Military History 73(2). Apr 2009: p. 531-569. Academic Search Complete. EBSCOHost. University of Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ. April 22, 2009 .

Guillemin, J. "Germ arfare Under the Microscope." Futurist 42(3) May/Jun 2008: p. 31. MasterFILE Premier. EBSCOHost. University of Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ. April 22, 2009 .

Kelle, A. "Strengthening the Effectiveness of the BT Control Regime -- Feasibility and Options." Contemporary Security Policy 24(2) Aug 2003: p. 95-132. MasterFILE Premier. EBSCOHost. University of Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ. April 22, 2009 .

Kellman, B. "Bioviolence: A Growing Threat." Futurist 42(3) May/Jun 2008: p. 25-30. MasterFILE Premier. EBSCOHost. University of Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ. April 22, 2009 .

Littlewood, J. "Biological eapons: Much Ado and Little Action." Minerva: A Review of Science, Learning & Policy 45(2) Apr 2007: p. 191-203. MasterFILE Premier. EBSCOHost. University of Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ. April 22,…...

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Works Cited

"Biological Weapon." Encyclopaedia Britannica. 2009. Encyclopaedia Britannica Online. 22 Apr. 2009 .

Goldman, D. "The Generals and the Germs." Journal of Military History 73(2). Apr 2009: p. 531-569. Academic Search Complete. EBSCOHost. University of Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ. April 22, 2009 .

Guillemin, J. "Germ Warfare Under the Microscope." Futurist 42(3) May/Jun 2008: p. 31. MasterFILE Premier. EBSCOHost. University of Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ. April 22, 2009 .

Kelle, A. "Strengthening the Effectiveness of the BTW Control Regime -- Feasibility and Options." Contemporary Security Policy 24(2) Aug 2003: p. 95-132. MasterFILE Premier. EBSCOHost. University of Phoenix, Phoenix, AZ. April 22, 2009 .

Having known the mounting dangers, many public health and bio-terrorism experts, members of Congress and some well-positioned ush administration officials convey increasing discomfort about what they think are flaws in the country's bio-defenses. Over the earlier years, awareness steps have been made, mainly in the large cities. ut most of necessary equipments are not available.
The federal government's standard answer to the anthrax assaults of 2001 and the warning of upcoming bio-terror attacks has been to accumulate huge amounts of drugs and vaccines to take care of or vaccinate sufferers or possible sufferers. However, these medicines are ineffective if there is no dependable system in place to quickly distribute and give out them to the disturbed populations early enough for the drugs to be successful. Regrettably, as of now, we do not have this strong, competent system in position in the United States. At the close of 2003, only two…...

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Bibliography

Analysis: U.S. Unprepared for Bio-Attack. NewsMax Wires. Retrieved from:   Accessed on 28 November, 2004http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2002/11/10/114328.shtml .

Biological Threat to U.S. Homeland is Very Real. 2004. Retrieved at Accessed on 28 November, 2004http://www.aviationnow.com/content/ncof/view_19.htm.

Biological Weapons and Threat Detection. Osborn Scientific Group BADD white paper. April, 2002. Retrieved at Accessed on 28 November, 2004http://osborn-scientific.com/PDF/osg_wp_bw_041802.pdf.

Brennan, Phil. Bio-terrorism Threat to U.S. is Real & Deadly. October 4, 2001. Retrieved at   Accessed on 28 November, 2004http://www.newsmax.com/archives/articles/2001/10/3/142304.shtml .

iological Weapons: The 'Living' and Pervasive Weapons of Mass Destruction
The 'art' and methods of war have indeed gone a long way; from subsisting to crude metals and guns, human society has learned to manipulate Nature by using as one of its weapons of mass destruction organisms that create balance within the planet's ecosystem. Nuclear warheads, guns, and other artilleries and weaponry are no longer feasible arsenals of war, mainly because they are not energy- and economically-efficient, as biological weapons are. iological weapons, is identified as a destructive medium which "consist of living, infectious microorganisms that are disseminated as aerosols through the atmosphere... are generally invisible, odorless, and tasteless" (Falkenrath, 1998). These characteristics of biological weapons make it a feasible medium for destruction, especially between warring nations/societies.

This paper traces the origins and history of biological weapons, especially in the United States. In knowing its history, this research also looks into the…...

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Bibliography

Augerson, W. (2000). A Review of the Scientific Literature As It Pertains to Gulf War Illnesses, Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents. Washington, D.C.: Random House.

Falkenrath, R. (1998). "Unconventional Arms: The Threat of Biological and Chemical Weapons." Microsoft Encarta Reference Library 2002. Microsoft Inc.

Forsberg, R. (1995). Nonproliferation Primer: Preventing the Spread of Nuclear, Chemical, and Biological Weapons. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Lederberg, J. (1999). Biological Weapons: Limiting the Threat. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Chemical and Biological Terroism
Biological and Chemical Terrorism Prevention

The United States Government has identified the potential of chemical, biological, radiological and/or nuclear (termed CBN) terrorism, especially after the September 11 attacks. They have been concerned ever since Sarin was used in a Tokyo subway (Aum Shinrikyo in 1995) and the anthrax case (in November 2001). The chances of terrorists resorting to these agents in warfare are pretty high considering their advantages over conventional methods. Most organizations fighting terrorism are not equipped well enough to detect such chemicals. A closed container can help most of them escape discovery. The low cost involved in their production increases the dangers manifold. Since most of the above agents affect the human body directly, they are essentially more efficient than conventional warfare.

Chemical weapons have four major classifications. Choking agents are aimed at being fatal and are easily accessible. Phosgene is one such industrial chemical agent. Blister…...

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References

Khan, A. Levitt, A. Sage, M. (2000). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Biological and Chemical Terrorism: Strategic Plan for Preparedness and Response. 7-19. Retrieved From  http://www.southernnevadahealthdistrict.org/download/epi/mmwr-plan.pdf 

Ashraf H. European dioxin-contaminated food crisis grows and grows [news]. Lancet

1999;353:2049.

Khan, A. Swerdlow, D. Juranek, D. (2001) Precautions Against Biological and Chemical Terrorism directed at Food and Water Supplies. Retrieved from  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1497290/pdf/11571403.pdf

DNC Scenario
Overview of Subject Matter: Biological warfare has got to do with the utilization of a wide range of microorganisms such as fungi, viruses, or bacteria to harm a human target (or in rare cases, to harm plants and animals). Essentially, "biothreat agents have the potential to produce a life-threatening illness" (The U.S. Department of Homeland Security, 2012).

Situation: a Democratic-epublican National Convention (DNC) event has been convened in Miami, Florida.

Threat: Biological WMD Agent. In the recent past, there have been reports of "biological development programs and arsenals in foreign countries, attempts to acquire or possess biological agents by militants…" (CDC, 2000). These, coupled with terror threats the U.S. faces warrants an assessment of the threat posed to the DNC event with regard to the release of a biological agent.

Facilitator/Crime Scene Investigations Workgroup Chairperson: Major Susan Baker, Commander of the Crime Investigations Bureau of the Miami-Dade Police Department

First Meeting of the…...

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References

ABC. (2011). 2001 Anthrax Attacks Timeline: Five Die after Letters Mailed. Retrieved from  http://www.wjla.com/articles/2011/10/2001-anthrax-attacks-timeline-five-die-after-letters-mailed-68155.html 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention -- CDC. (2000). Biological and Chemical Terrorism: Strategic Plan for Preparedness and Response. Retrieved from  http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr4904a1.htm 

FBI. (2000). Crime Scene Investigation: A Guide for Law Enforcement- Research Report. Retrieved from  http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/lab/forensic-science-communications/fsc/april2000/twgcsi.pdf 

The U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (2012). Biological Attack: The Danger. Retrieved from http://www.dhs.gov/biological-attack-danger

Perhaps the public has become somewhat desensitized by nuclear war, but the idea of unseen agents loosed in the water supply, or used to burn without fire, causes panic to a greater degree (Tucker, 2008, 112-15).
An interesting paradigm regarding the fear factor involved in chemical and biological terrorism may surround the psychological issues that have surrounded the possibility of nuclear fear for decades, almost desensitizing people to it -- and the thought that they would either be instantly vaporized, or at least face a quick death. With biologics and chemicals, though, the fear is more of slowly dying, sick, bleeding, etc. such as shown in the films Outbreak or the Andromeda Strain (Smithson, 2004).

hemical Weapons -- hemical warfare and weaponry is nothing new to the scene of terrorism and war, especially after the advances made during World War I. The destructive effects of chemical weapons are their toxic nature,…...

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Chemical terrorism is terroristic warfare that uses weapons that are chemically based, such as gas, burning agents, or other liquid or gaseous compounds. Unlike the chemical warfare that so terrorized the soldiers in World War I, in which trenched troops shot poisonous shells into each other's trench cities, or gassed whole planes of battle, is it more systematic and targeted. It differs, too, from a military use of such agents against a human population, for example the use of poisons by Sadaam Hussein against his own minority populations. Chemical terrorism is similar in many ways to biological terrorism, but the agents and toxins used operate in a different manner -- chemically induced carnage from the outside of the body as opposed to bioligically induced destruction from the inside of the body moving outward (Taylor, 2001; Falkenrath, et.al., 1998).

Biological Weapons - a bioterrorism attack uses biological weapons (viruses, bacteria, or germs) that are released in a manner that will negatively impact either humans, flora or fauna in a given environment. The particular agents involved must be deliberately set upon a population and may be natural forms or genetically manipulated agents that are more virulent than naturally found in nature, or resistant to current treatment or detection. These deadly agents may be airborne, ingested in drinking water, or become part of the food chain. This is the crux of their popularity -- they are often difficult to isolate and detect and often are latent for hours or days prior to symptoms, allowing the terrorist to be far away from the specified population when it becomes clear a biological was used. Some of the most power (smallpox, etc.) can be spread from person to person, some (Ebola) are so virulent they often kill their host prior to recontamination and others (anthrax, for example) must be touched or ingested by the individual for the effect to occur ("Bioterrorism Overview," CDC, 2007).

Every society has suffered more from disease than warfare, even though one might argue that the first case of biological warfare was unleashed upon the Aztec and Maya by the Spanish Conquistadores. In fact, many experts believe that without the outbreaks of smallpox, measles, and venereal disease, there would not have been a Spanish victory (Diamond, 2005).

egardless, highly possible plans can be devised could result in huge numbers of deaths that range into the thousands for chemical agents and the hundreds of thousands, or maybe millions, with biological ones6. Bioterrorists have successfully utilized agents ranging from the ones that rapidly cause death, such as nerve agents and cyanide, to those that impact hours after exposure, such as mustard gas and pulmonary agents.
John Hopkins Center for Civilian Biodefense Studies compared potential biological agents to determine which maximum credible event would offer the greatest risk for a public health response. In this case, the "maximum credible event" is defined as an occurrence that could cause significant loss of life, as well as disruption, panic, and a total overwhelming of the civilian health-care resources. 7

To fit this definition of a maximum credible event, the CB must include some of the following properties: be highly lethal, easily produced in…...

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References

Henderson, Donald a "Smallpox as a biological weapon." Journal of the American Medical Association, 283 (1999), 2127-2137

Kortepeter Mark G. And Gerald W. Parker, "Potential Biological Weapons Threats." Emerging Infectious Diseases Journal. 5 (1999): 523-525

Report No. 2000/02: Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) Terrorism." Perspectives. Accessed 2 July 2007http://www.csis-scrs.gc.ca/en/publications/perspectives/200002.asp.

Sidell, Frederick R. And David R. Franz. Introduction to chemical and biological agents. Medical aspects of chemical and biological warfare. Washington, D.C.: Borden Institute, Walter Reed Army Medical Center, 1997

A terrorist network does not seek legitimacy either, but acts without regard for human liberty, human rights, or international law. Terrorist networks speak only for themselves. While nation-states may support them through funding or providing safe havens, terrorist groups are not polities. They do not deserve the juridical considerations due to even the most rogue of nations. The rules for preemptive action must therefore be more flexible with regards to terrorism.
ogue nations are also of particular concern for the United States today. Together with terrorism, rogue states pose "deadly challenges" to the United States," ("National Security Strategy," p. 13). ogue states resemble terrorist networks in some ways: most notably by their pursuit of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) and their blatant disregard for international law. Moreover, rogue states often work in tandem with terrorist networks. They may share intelligence, access to weapons, and sources of funding. Together, rogue states…...

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References

Ideas to Go: Preemptive Action." Retrieved April 21, 2007 at  http://www.intellectualtakeout.com/ideastogo/documents/Preemption-to-Go.pdf 

Kacerauskis, Vytautas. "Can a Member of the United Nations Unilaterally Decide to Use Preemptive Force Against Another State Without Violating the UN Charter?" International Journal of Baltic Law. 2(1), 2005.

National Security Strategy of the United States of America." White House. Retrieved April 21, 2007 at  http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss.html

Sonar esearch and Naval Warfare: 1914-1954
During both World War I and World War II, there were a number of informational tactics used by the Navy in order to gain ground on enemy troops. One of those was sonar research, because it provided them with knowledge they would not have otherwise had (Hackmann, 1984). Sonar is not perfect, but a great deal of work has gone into it since its creation, and that has helped it to become a more valuable tool for Naval operations. Sonar is used for navigation, but also for communication and the detection of objects, primarily underwater (Urick, 1983). There are two types of sonar: passive and active. In active sonar, pings are sent out to search for other objects (Hackmann, 1984). Passive sonar does not send out a signal, but only listens for the pings and signals of others (Hackmann, 1984). Both have their place, and…...

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References

Abbatiello, J. (2005). Anti-submarine warfare in World War I: British Naval aviation and the defeat of the U-boats. NY: Routledge.

Adamthwaite, A.P. (1992). The making of the Second World War. New York: Routledge.

Barber, J., & Harrison, M. (2006). Patriotic war, 1941 -- 1945. In Ronald Grigor Suny, ed. The Cambridge History of Russia, Volume III: The Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hackmann, W. (1984). Seek & Strike: Sonar, anti-submarine warfare and the Royal Navy 1914-54. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.

8). Some
additional equipment used by first responders might include both breathing masks and full-fledged gas masks (depending on the circumstances), ropes, ladders, flashlights, helmets

(some sporting lights), anchor points, buoyancy control devices, stretchers (some with wheels, others are handheld) portable radios, food, water, antibiotics, insulin, needles and even more. Much of this equipment will be a matter of not only practicality, but of necessity as well.

First responders also need clothing that reflects the nature of the emergency with which they need to address. If the situation which they are addressing is one that includes biological components the clothing they must don is a bit different than that of regular first responder's clothing. First responders clothing can include a number of different items such as; insulated, waterproofed heavy and highly visible jackets, multiple-use bandanas, public safety, police and fire vests, polyurethane overalls, parkas, coats and waterproof jackets.

Many of these items are…...

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References

American Red Cross (2011) First aid/CPR/AED, accessed at website:   on March 15, 2011http://www.redcross.org/portal/site/en/menuitem.d8aaecf214c576bf971e4cfe43181aa0/?vgnextoid=aea70c45f663b110VgnVCM10000089f0870aRCRD ,

Borio, L.; Inglesby, T.; Peters, C.J.; Schmaljohn, a.I.; Hughes, J.M.; Jarhling, P.B.; Ksiazek, T.; Johnson, K.M.; Meyerhoff, a.; O'Toole, T.; Ascher, M.S.; Bartlett, J.; Breman, J.G.; Eitzen, Jr., E.M.; Hamburg, M.; Hauer, J.; Henderson, D.A.; Johnson, R.T.; Kwik, G.; Layton, M.; Lillibridge, S.; Nabel, G.J.; Osterholm, M.T.; Perl, T.M.; Russell, P.; Tonat, K.; (2002) Hemorrhagic fever viruses as biological weapons, Journal of American Medical Association, Vol. 287, Issue 18, pp. 2391-2405

NFPA-1006 (2008) Standard for technical rescuer professional qualifications -- 2008 edition, National Fire Protection Association, 2008

Rockland Fire Equipment Company, Inc. (2011) Bio-Chemical protective suits for first responders, accessed at website:   / on March 15, 2011http://www.rocklandfire.com 

e., it removes subjectivity as a vantage point). It is also hard to tell how much unhappiness is created and how to weigh it against the happiness that is created (e.g., how much George would hate his job?, how much suffering will the warmonger go through because he did not get this job?). Further, quantification of happiness or suffering becomes a real issue when trying to determine things on a macro scale. For example, does the tiniest amount of world happiness outweigh a huge amount of individual suffering? How much world happiness is necessary if not?
Second, utilitarianism relies on the outcomes of the actions in order to determine morality. If war breaks out and all of the United States is whipped out because George begrudgingly did his job, dragging his feet the whole time, then his action to take the job was wrong. He would have caused the devastation of…...