Antibiotics
When Antibiotics Quit Working

When they first began to be used, antibiotics were considered miracle drugs because they cured infections that normally killed many people. Over the decades, these compounds have come to be a common treatment for bacterial infections. But as the use of antibiotics has increased, a seriously dangerous side-effect has developed: antibiotic resistant bacteria. Almost every bacteria that has been treated with antibiotics over the years has become more resistant to the effectiveness of antibiotic treatments. As a result, bacterial infections are more difficult than ever to treat and infections that have no loner been seen as a threat to humans are beginning to return and threatening people once again.

It was in 1928 that Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic, called penicillin. Antibiotics are "natural compounds produced by a fungus or another microorganism that kills bacteria which cause disease in humans or animals." ("Antibiotic esistance Questions and Answers.")…...

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References

"Antibiotic Resistance Questions and Answers." Centers for Disease Control

and Prevention Webpage. Retrieved from  http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/ antibiotic-use/antibiotic-resistance-faqs.html#c

"Appropriate Antimicrobial Prescribing: Approaches that Limit Antibiotic Resistance."

American Academy of Family Physicians (AAFP). Retrieved from  http://www.aafp.org/afp/2001/0915/p999.html

antibiotics have saved millions of lives, their efficacy is diminished over time because of antibiotic resistance. Many pathogens possess the ability to multiply and mutate rapidly in response to the presence of antibiotics, and those mutations that are the hardiest will survive, making successive generations even more resistant. To determine how these antibiotic resistant processes operate and what steps researchers have taken in response, this paper provides a review of the relevant peer-reviewed and scholarly literature, followed by a summary of the research and important findings in the conclusion.
The Evolution of Antibiotic esistance

When it was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928, penicillin was widely hailed, and rightfully so, as a miracle drug. While penicillin and other antibiotics have in fact saved millions of lives over the past several decades, the tendency of many physicians to over-prescribe these medications as well as the proliferation of the use of antibiotics by…...

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References

Aguirre, A.A., Ostfeld, R.S., Tabor, G.. M., House, C. & Pearl, M.C. (2002). Conservation

medicine: Ecological health in practice. New York: Oxford University Press.

Brower, J. & Chalk, J. (2003). The global threat of new and reemerging infectious diseases:

Reconciling U.S. national security and public health policy. Santa Monica, CA: Rand.

Antibiotics
Penicillin

Mechanism of Action

Penicillin G, when injected into the patient, will act against actively proliferating penicillin-sensitive strains of bacteria (Drugs.com, 2011). This does not include several strains of staphylococci producing penicillinase or bacteria that are quiescent. The mechanism of action is inhibition of cell-wall mucopeptide biosynthesis. Penicillin G. works best against staphylococci groups A, B, C, G, H, L, and M, pneumococci, Neisseria meningitides, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Treponemapallidum, and many others.

Clinical Uses

Penicillin is used to treat serious infections, such as septicemia, pneumonia, endocarditis, pericarditis, empyema, and meningitis (Drugs.com, 2011). Penicillin is also indicated in cases of anthrax, botulism, actinomycosis, diphtheria, listeria infections, erysipelothrix endocarditis, severe infections of the oropharynx, lower respiratory tract, and genitals. Penicillin is also used to treat gonorrhea, syphyilis, rat-bite fever, and Haverhill fever. Only penicillin-sensitive bacteria should be treated due to the risk of creating penicillin-resistant strains. Although treatment should begin immediately in urgent cases, the sensitivity of…...

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References

Drugs.com. (2011). Penicillin G. Sodium Injection (FDA prescribing information). Drugsite Trust. Retrieved from  http://www.drugs.com/pro/penicillin-g-sodium-injection.html .

Drugs.com. (2013). Septra (FDA prescribing information). Drugsite Trust. Retrieved from  http://www.drugs.com/pro/septra.html .

Drugs.com. (2014a). Gentamicin Sulfate (FDA prescribing information). Drugsite Trust. Retrieved from  http://www.drugs.com/pro/gentamicin-sulfate.html .

Drugs.com. (2014b). Zithromax (FDA prescribing information). Drugsite Trust. Retrieved from  http://www.drugs.com/pro/zithromax.html .

Chicken are treated with antibiotics and with a drug with contains arsenic. These drugs are given to birds when they are sick, and also, to make them grow faster. This treatment on birds is dangerous for humans because, if the meat isn't cooked well, people can fall ill, and the drugs that they were normally using would not destroy bacteria. This is because of the fact that excessive use of antibiotics on chicken made the bacteria develop stronger in its body and because the meat isn't cooked properly, bacteria are transferred in the organism, being immune to common drugs. This case is not only for chicken, but for the other animals, such as pigs, cows, etc. So, the meat or other products from chickens, pigs, cows that have been administrated antibiotics is not healthy, and can make people fall ill, with their affections being difficult to treat. ith these…...

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Works cited:

1. Amyes, Sebastian G.B. Magic Bullets, Lost Horizons: The Rise and Fall of Antibiotics (London: Taylor & Francis, 2001)

2. Levy, Stuart B. How Miracle Drugs Are Destroying the Miracle (New York: Plenum Press, 1992)

he study that covered the topic most thoroughly was the one by Saavedra, J.M. (2001), which covered not only the present situation with probiotics, but also looked at such topics as intestinal flora, lactose malabsorption, diarrhea, bacteria vs. viruses, atopic disease, and clinical safety and tolerance. In order to better understand the place that probiotics has in today's modern-day society, it is worthwhile to have a background such as the one offered here. On a whole, the rest of studies were comparable, because they were all meta-analyses and dealt with looking at the results of several studies over time. Of interest, of course, is the fact that not one of these articles found that probiotics does not help the side effects of taking antibiotics. As was mentioned, additional studies need to be done on dose, agent, length time taken, and so forth. Of course, it would be very helpful that…...

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The object of this article was to compare the efficacy of probiotics for the prevention of AAD based on the published randomized, controlled clinical trials using meta-analyses, three types of probiotics (Saccharomyces boulardii, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, and probiotic.) the trials were included where specific probiotics for either prevention or treatment were the diseases of interest. Thirty-one of 180 screened studies (totally 3,164 subjects) met the inclusion and exclusion criteria. One reviewer identified studies and abstracted data on sample size, population characteristics, treatments, and outcomes. From 25 trials, probiotics significantly reduced the relative use of AAD. The authors concluded that a variety of different types of probiotics presently look promising as effective therapies.

The study that covered the topic most thoroughly was the one by Saavedra, J.M. (2001), which covered not only the present situation with probiotics, but also looked at such topics as intestinal flora, lactose malabsorption, diarrhea, bacteria vs. viruses, atopic disease, and clinical safety and tolerance. In order to better understand the place that probiotics has in today's modern-day society, it is worthwhile to have a background such as the one offered here. On a whole, the rest of studies were comparable, because they were all meta-analyses and dealt with looking at the results of several studies over time. Of interest, of course, is the fact that not one of these articles found that probiotics does not help the side effects of taking antibiotics. As was mentioned, additional studies need to be done on dose, agent, length time taken, and so forth. Of course, it would be very helpful that the normal diet would change enough that these probiotics were not necessary.

Probiotics are clearly found to be helpful for acute diarrhea, particularly in infants. It also may be the case that probiotics has a prophylactic effect to decrease the degree of illness when taken regularly, the effect of which appears to be greater in high-risk populations. The documented therapeutic effects include decreases shorter episodes or severity of illness. Probiotic agents also appear promising for the management of other diseases such as colitis, atopic disease, and other gut conditions, such as inflammatory bowel disease. It also may be the case that in the future people will continue to consume friendly bacteria even when they are not on antibiotics. This would help return the body back thousands of years when the diet was much better, be a major benefit of warding off serious diseases such as colon cancer, and greatly help the immune system as well as cut down on stomach problems, such as gas, bloating and diarrhea. In the long run, the amount of antibiotics needed by the general population would also decrease.

This was an extremely unethical move, because in many cases the parents had no idea their child was partaking in a study,
Another example of the unethical decisions made by Pfizer was the move not to remove many children off the experimental drug when they failed to respond to it. In response, many children died who might have had a chance if they had been removed off the Trovan and placed on a more traditional antibiotic. Yet, Pfizer made the decision to ignore such dire needs of its patients and continue on with the study despite the ramifications. This is a blatant example of a completely unethical decision made to promote a faster passing of the drug into FDA standards.

Although this strategy was meant to provide faster results to the FDA on the benefits of Trovan, I would have rather taken a slower and more ethical root. Yes, this did…...

Chemotherapy as a Treatment for Cancer
It was a commonly held notion that along with cancer treatment through chemotherapy come a variety of side effects which may have quite an impact on one's life later on. In the recent years, however, this concept has been changed because the side effects can be controlled and minimized. Considering the fact that chemotherapy is one of the most effective and reliable cancer treatments, many have come to terms with it and are considering the fight against cancer with this process (Cukier).

Chemotherapy can be described as the treatment which involves the chemical substances that enable the body to kill the cancer cells and slow down their growth process. It is a kind of systematic process which allows the cells of the disease to be eliminated from their origin. Weighing out the statistics shows just how many people who suffer from cancer are treated using these…...

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Bibliography

Cukier, Daniel. Coping with Chemotherapy and Radiation. New York: McGraw Hill, 2005.

Keen, Ernest. Drugs, Therapy and Professional Power: Problems and Pills. Westerport: Praeger Publications, 1998.

Quinn, Susan. Human Trials: Scientists, Investors and Patients in the Quest for a Cure. Cambridge: Perseus Publishing, 2001.

Rn, Nancy S. "Insomnia, Fatigue, Anxiety, Depression and Quality of Life of Cancer Patients Undergoing Chemotherapy." Scholarly Inquiry for Nursing Practice (2000).

Antibiotic Resistant Streptococci
There are more than thirty different species of streptococcal bacteria. The infections that strep causes in humans range from "strep throat," which is caused by Group A strep and relatively easily treatable, to diseases such as pneumonia and serious wound infections, both of which can prove deadly.(1)

Antibiotics were first developed during World War II, and have saved many millions of human lives since then that would have been lost to streptococci infections and diseases. Penicillin alone was solely responsible for dramatically decreasing mortality rates of soldiers wounded on the battlefields of World War II compared to corresponding rates of World War I casualties.

The widespread use of penicillin and more modern antibiotics that have been developed since World War II has been accompanied by the natural evolution of some bacterial strains that are resistant to antibiotics. In many respects, the natural ability of bacteria to develop antibiotic resistant strains…...

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Bibliography

Hurst, L., Russell, S. Superbugs and nightmare scenarios: Resistance to antibiotics grows; Toronto Star (Aug. 3, 2002) Accessed at  http://www.vaccinationnews.com/DailyNews/August2002/Superbugs&Nightmares15.htm 

2. Lopez, T. Study: Drug-resistant infections increasing in U.S. hospitals www.solucient.com (August 5, 2003 Press Release) Accessed at http://www.solucient.com/news_press/news20030805.shtml

Srikameswaran, A. Higher rate of antibiotic resistance here puzzles researchers; Pittsburgh Post-Gazette (February 18, 2004) Accessed at  http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/04049/274463.stm 

4. Staphylococcal and streptococcal infections

Antibiotic Resistance Antibiotic resistance develops in the same way that human resistance to infection develops—through exposure, the body builds up a resistance so that whatever is introduced is less effective at performing its task. As Ventola (2015) notes, “the overuse of antibiotics clearly drives the evolution of resistance. Epidemiological studies have demonstrated a direct relationship between antibiotic consumption and the emergence and dissemination of resistant bacteria strains” (p. 277). Moreover, bacteria can inherent genes that are already resistant to antibiotics, which means that horizontal gene transfer occurs to create a veritable shield of defense against antibiotics. The more that antibiotics are used, the less effective they become and the stronger harmful bacteria can become. The complications that ensue are based on the fact that “when these resistant bacteria are all that are left, they are free to multiply, passing the resistance to their offspring” (Environmental Encyclopedia 4, 2011, p. 81). If…...

ole of Antibiotic Therapy in the Treatment of Periodontal Disease?
The objective of this work is to examine the role of antibiotic therapy in the treatment of periodontal disease. Also examined will be the delivery system, the type of antibiotics and efficacy as an adjunct to mechanical therapy in the management of periodontal disease. Toward this end, this work will examine the literature in this area of study including literature located in professional and academic journal and publications.

Sub-Antimicrobial Dose Doxycycline

The work of Preshaw, et al. (2005) entitled "Long-Term Treatment with Sub-Antimicrobial Dose Doxycycline Has No Antibacterial Effect on Intestinal Flora" reports a study that sought to determine if a nine-month regimen of subantimicrobial doxycycline (20 mg. bid) had an effect on either the intestinal or the vaginal microflora. The study involved 69 individuals with periodontal disease who were randomized to receive drug or placebo control for a nine-month period. It…...

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References

American Academy of Periodontology. (2000) Parameter on "refractory" periodontitis. J Periodontol 2000;71:859-860.

Andrian E, Grenier D, Rouabhia M. (2004) In vitro models of tissue penetration and destruction by Porphyromonas gingivalis. Infect Immun. 2004;72: 4689 -- 98.

Chen C, Slots J. (1993) The current status and future prospects of altering the pathogenic microflora of periodontal disease. Curr Opin Periodontol 1993;71-77.

Chen C, Slots J. (2000) Microbiological tests for Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans and Porphyromonas gingivalis. Periodontol 2000-1999;20:53-64.

Psuedomonas Aeruginosa
Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Epidemiology

The Gram-negative, motile, rod-shaped bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic killer that takes advantage of people suffering from medical problems (Van Delden and Iglewski, 1998).For this reason, P. aeruginosa is one of the most common nosocomial infection that occurs in hospitals. P. aeruginosa is responsible for causing 16% of pneumonia cases, 12% of urinary tract infections, 10% of bloodstream infections, and 8% of surgical infections due to hospital care. Patients who are immune-compromised are also susceptible to P. aeruginosa infections, such as patients undergoing chemotherapy, suffering from HIV / AIDS, recovering in burn units, and suffering from cystic fibrosis. With death rates ranging from 30 to 60% for these patients, P. aeruginosa is considered to be a significant threat to patient health.

Ecology

P. aeruginosa can switch between a free-swimming planktonic form and colonies enclosed within slime-protected biofilms attached to surfaces (Baltch and Smith, 1994, p. 1). The planktonic form…...

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References

Baltch, A.L. And Smith, R.P. (Eds.). (1994). Pseudomonoas aeruginosa Infections and Treatment. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Botzenhart, Konrad and Doring, Gerd. (1993). Ecology and Epidemiology of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In M. Campa, M. Bendinelli, H. Friedman (Eds.), Pseudomonas aeruginosa as an Opportunistic Pathogen (pp. 1-18). New York, NY: Plenum Press.

Hawkey, Peter M. And Kerr, Kevin G. (2004). Laboratory investigation of health care-associated infection. In P. Hawkey and D. Lewis (Eds.), Medical Bacteriology: A Practical Approach (pp. 331-354). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Hurley, Matthew N., Camara, Miguel, and Smyth, Alan R. (2012). Novel approaches to the treatment of Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections in cystic fibrosis. European Respiratory Journal, published online ahead of print, 1-19. Retrieved 23 July 2012 from  http://erj.ersjournals.com/content/early/2012/06/27/09031936.00042012.long .

efining other techniques is laudable and important, but is not the domain of the proposed research. In addition, the mixed methods use of both mass spectrometry and bioinformatics methodologies is logically called fro due to the volume of data the mass spectrometry is expected to generate and the time consuming nature of any other mode of analysis save those available through specialized bioinformatics programs (Kuamr & Mann, 2009).
Conclusion

The selection of the model bacterial strain and of the previously validated antibiotic agent will be important considerations for this research, and will have a direct impact on the applicability of the results in other areas of research. Selection should be made on a basis of practicality not only in the ability to carry out the research, but also in light of how the findings can and might actually be applied. There are no real ethical implications that need to be considered…...

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References

Aebersold, R. & Mann, M. (2003). Mass spectrometry-based proteomics. Nature 422: 198-207.

Aldred, S., Grant, M. & Griffiths, H. (2004). The use of proteomics for the assessment of clinical samples in research. Clinical Biochemistry 37(11): 943-52.

Freiberg, C., Brotz-Oesterhelt, H. & Labischinski, H. (2004). The impact of transcriptome and proteome analyses on antibiotic drug discovery. Current Opinion in Microbiology 7(5): 451-9.

Kuiper, H., Kok, E. & Engel, K. (2003). Exploitation of molecular profiling techniques for GM food safety assessment. Current Opinion in Biotechnology 14(2): 238-43.

Based on the results of these assays, S. flexneri can often be identified, although additional kits may be required. The simplest way, however, may be the novel approach through multiplex PCR (mRPC). It is possible to identify Shigella species through mPCR techniques by identifying pathogenicity islands associated with Shigella and S. flexneri.
6. How could you create a corn plant that would express the human protein fibrin? (You need to include techniques, steps, enzymes, etc.)

In order to create a corn plant that would express the human protein fibrin, scientists would first need to incorporate the human fibrin gene within the corn plant genome. The incorporated human gene would require regulation and promoter sequences that would function within the plant cell. Proper splicing sequences would also be required or removal of the introns altogether.

The delivery of transgenes into the corn plant could be accomplished through electroporation into corn protoplasts followed by…...

Nursing
Discussion #1 Diabetes (either type 1 or type 2) can cause many problems for the patient when the disease is uncontrolled. Please choose one of the problems associated with diabetes and describe what happens to the body to cause the problem. Examine what causes the problem in the patient with diabetes and create a teaching strategy for a patient who is at risk for the problem. Include the types of Insulin in your post, Lantis, Lispro, egular and Intermediate acting and illustrate how evidence-based practice can improve outcomes. Justify your answers and cite your references.

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease that destroys the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas such that it produces only a little or no insulin. Accounting for 5 to 10% of diabetes in the U.S., the disease occurs primarily in children and young adults. Prior to the discovery of insulin in 1921, everyone with type…...

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References

Drugs & Medications - Singulair Oral. WebMed. Retrieved  http://www.webmd.com/drugs/mono-8277-MONTELUKAST+-+ORAL.aspx?drugid=6485&drugname=Singulair+Oral 

Why Is This Medicine Prescribed? Med Line Plus. Retrieved   [Type text]http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a600014.html#side-effects 

resistance of the planctomycetes organisms to the various antibiotics using the in vitro method. The aim was to establish the susceptibility of these six selected organisms; Planctomyces maris, Planctomyces brasiliensis, Blastopirellula marina, Planctomyces limnophilus, Gemmata obscuriglobus and hodopirellula baltica as reference points by exposing them to 18 antibiotics which overall represented eleven antibiotics families. The methods that were used in the in vitro approach were strain and culture and antimicrobial susceptibility testing.
It was found out that Planctomycetes were resistant to b-lactams and glycopeptides and further it was established that most Planctomycetes organisms were resistant to chloramphenicol and to the aminoglycoside gentamicin. The article also indicates that in as much as the Planctomycetes organisms are naturally resistant to some antibiotic families, there were observed large differences in the resistance profiles among genera and species.

Assessment of drugs resistance

One of the clearest and most reliable assessment that one can make on the…...

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References

Ingrid K., (2008). Getting Rid of Superbugs. Retrieved February 22, 2014 from  http://infectiousdiseases.about.com/od/rarediseases/a/superbug_rid.htm 

CDC., (2013). Antibiotic Resistance Questions & Answers. Retrieved February 22, 2014 from  http://www.cdc.gov/getsmart/ antibiotic-use/antibiotic-resistance-faqs.html

MedicineNet Inc., (2014). Antibiotic Resistance (Drug Resistance, Antimicrobial Resistance). Retrieved February 22, 2014 from  http://www.medicinenet.com/antibiotic_resistance/article.htm

To begin writing an essay about upper respiratory tract infections, you want to think about the approach you want to take.  Do you want to describe upper respiratory tract infections, discuss causes of these infections, focus on symptoms, or look at different treatment methods?  Perhaps you want to do a combination of those things and write a comprehensive essay on the topic.  Next, you want to consider your audience.  Are you writing a generic essay for a lower-level course in a non-scientific discipline or is your essay for an audience that is....

1. Bronchiectasis: A Comprehensive Review of Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management

Introduction: Define bronchiectasis and highlight its prevalence, etiology, and risk factors.
Pathophysiology: Discuss the mechanisms leading to bronchiectasis, including impaired mucociliary clearance and chronic inflammation.
Clinical Manifestations and Diagnosis: Describe the typical symptoms, physical exam findings, and diagnostic tests used to identify bronchiectasis.
Management: Review the current treatment options for bronchiectasis, including antibiotics, airway clearance techniques, bronchodilators, and surgical intervention.
Prognosis and Complications: Discuss the long-term outcomes and potential complications associated with bronchiectasis, such as respiratory failure and hemoptysis.

2. Role of Imaging in Bronchiectasis: CT, MRI, and Beyond

Introduction: Highlight....

## Infectious Diseases Essay Topic Ideas

### Epidemiology and Surveillance

- The role of surveillance in controlling infectious disease outbreaks
- The challenges and limitations of infectious disease surveillance
- The economic impact of infectious diseases on the healthcare system
- The impact of globalization on the spread of infectious diseases
- The role of social determinants of health in the spread of infectious diseases

### Prevention and Control

- The role of vaccination in preventing infectious diseases
- The development and evaluation of new antimicrobial therapies
- The use of hand hygiene and other infection control measures
- The role of public health education in preventing the spread of infectious....

Methods for Detecting Burkholderia Cepacia in Water in Pharmaceutical Literature
Introduction
Burkholderia cepacia is a Gram-negative bacterium that can cause serious infections in immunocompromised individuals. It is often found in water, soil, and plants, and can contaminate pharmaceutical products, such as intravenous fluids and medications. Detecting B. cepacia in water is essential for ensuring the safety of these products.
Culture-Based Methods
Culture-based methods are the traditional approach for detecting B. cepacia in water. These methods involve growing the bacteria on a selective culture medium, such as Burkholderia cepacia selective agar (BCSA). BCSA contains antibiotics that inhibit the growth of other bacteria, allowing B. cepacia....