Retrograde Amnesia
Amnesia is the loss of the faculty of memory and one of the common forms of brain disorders. It is caused by any organic causes like infections, psychological trauma's or physical injuries to the brain. Amnesia can either be associated with loss of recollection of the past or of the events that immediately follow the accident. In the former case it is called as retrograde amnesia while the later condition is referred to as anterograde amnesia. Retrograde amnesia is in general viewed as a problem with recovering remote information while anterograde amnesia represents problems with registering new information. Let us have a brief outlook into the diagnosis, cause and treatment of retrograde amnesia.

Types of Amnesia

There are different types of amnesia like retrograde, anterograde, lacunar amnesia, transient global amnesia and hysterical amnesia. Among these retrograde and anterograde amnesia are the two most prevalent conditions. Amnesia can be caused by brain…...

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Bibliography

1) A. Scriabine, "International Congress of Pharmacology

Munich, Germany, July 26n31, 1998, New Drugs Affecting Central Nervous

System," Accessed on November 28th, 2003,  http://www.nevapress.com/cnsdr/full/4/3/287.pdf .

Health News Digest, Memory Enhancing Drugs May Worsen Working Memory, Accessed on November 26th, 2003,  http://www.healthnewsdigest.com/news/hlth_memory-4.html

, 2004). Brain imaging studies confirm that those factors include the efficiency of processes unrelated to the underlying cause of amnesia, such as the subsequent neurological regeneration of nerve fibers in particular (Staniloiu & Markowitsch, 2010).
As predicted, volumes of animal studies and research involving testing individuals suffering from retrograde amnesia have subsequently identified several specific regions and structures as being involved in the development of retrograde amnesia that are completely distinct from the hippocampal regions implicated in connection with anterograde amnesia. In particular, Broca's Area and Wernicke's Area have been identified in that regard (Sadek, White, Taylor, et al., 2004). The other principal importance of these findings has to do with their roles of memory in human speech and language (James & MacKay, 2001).

etrograde amnesia is often seen in connection with injury to regions of the temporal lobe and the right temporo-prefrontal cortices (Staniloiu & Markowitsch, 2010), areas of the…...

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References

James, L.E. And MacKay, D.G. "H. M., Word Knowledge, and Aging: Support for a New Theory of Long-Term Retrograde Amnesia." American Psychological

Society, Vol. 12, No. 6 (2001): 485 -- 492.

Meeter, M. And Murre, J.M. "Consolidation of Long-Term Memory: Evidence and Alternatives." Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 130, No. 6, (2004): 843 -- 857.

Sadek, J.R., White, D.A., Taylor, K.I., et al., "Retrograde Amnesia in Dementia:

Memory Search and Amnesia
MemorySearch

The concept of the central nervous system suggests that the brain and nervous system is an immutable object within the body that once developed, cannot change. However recent discoveries within the field of neuroplasticity have shown that the brain is indeed mutable and changing. Even following injury the brain has the ability to create modified functional structures and to create new synapses and electrical connections. The purpose of this paper is to explore the cellular mechanisms that underlie neuroplastic phenomena in the brain and to relate them to memory, learning and function throughout the body.

Historically neuroscientists and biologists believed the brain was a rather immutable structure that once developed, could no longer change much. The brain could retain information, memorize and learn, but past childhood the brain did not have the ability to form map new synapsis and electrical connections. Thanks to the discovery of neuroplasticity, neuroscientists…...

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References:

Bergado-Rosado, JA, Almaquer-Melian, W. (2000 Dec). Cellular mechanisms of neuroplasticity.

Rev Neurol. 1-15:31(11): 1074-95.

Chakraborty, R., Chatterjee, A., Choudhary, S. & Chakraborty, PK. 2007 Sept. Neuroplasticity a paradigm shift in neurosciences. Journal Indian Medical Association. 105(9): 513-4, 520-1.

Rossi, E.L. (2003). Gene expression, neurogenesis, and healing: Psychosocial genomics of therapeutic hypnosis. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis.

Childhood amnesia, which is commonly known as infantile amnesia, is the scarcity or lack of autobiographical recollections among adults regarding incidents that took place in their early life, especially events that occurred before they turned 4 years old. Generally, most adults have no recollections of events that took place in their early life before they turned 3 years. Childhood amnesia is usually assessed through asking adults to remember their earliest memory, especially specific target incidents that happened during early life. As a result, the emergence of autobiographical memory is always regarded as the end of childhood amnesia. Childhood amnesia is an important topic in the field of psychology with regards to understanding an individual's life development. The topic is also vital in the field of psychology because it provides significant insights that help in understanding memory.
Background Information

Childhood amnesia or infantile amnesia is basically described as the scarcity or lack of…...

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References

Dean, J. (2014, February). Childhood Amnesia: The Age at Which Our Earliest Memories Fade.

Retrieved February 19, 2015, from  http://www.spring.org.uk/2014/02/childhood-amnesia-the-age-at-which-our-earliest-memories-fade.php 

Hamilton, J. (2014, April 8). The Forgotten Childhood: Why Early Memories Fade. Retrieved February 19, 2015, from  http://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2014/04/08/299189442/the-forgotten-childhood-why-early-memories-fade 

Josselyn, S.A. & Frankland, P.W. (2012). Infantile Amnesia: A Neurogenic Hypothesis.

Anterograde amnesia is a disorder in which the patient is unable to produce new memories following the incident that caused the amnesia. While long-term memories from prior to the incident may remain, the person has difficulty recalling the immediate past. Diagnosis of anterograde amnesia is performed using a variety of tests, from imaging scans (such as MRI or CT) to blood tests (to detect whether there is infection, nutrient deficiencies) to electroencephalogram for detecting seizure activity. Physical exams (checking reflexes of the patient, sensory function) and cognitive tests are also performed, in which the patient’s short-term and long-term memory is checked. The memory evaluation is critical in determining the type of amnesia that the patient has suffered (Mayo Clinic, 2018). In the film 50 First Dates, the character of Lucy Whitmore played by Drew Barrymore suffers from what is essentially anterograde amnesia, though in the film it is given the…...

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References

Alber, J., Della Sala, S., & Dewar, M. (2014). Minimizing interference with early consolidation boosts 7-day retention in amnesic patients. Neuropsychology, 28(5), 667-675.

Dewar, M., Sala, S., Beschin, N. & Cowan, N. (2010). Profound retroactive interference in anterograde amnesia: What interferes? Neuropsychology, 24(3), 357-367.

Hurlemann, R., Hawellek, B., Matusch, A., Kolsch, H., Wollersen, M. B., Vogeley, K., Maier, W. & Dolan, R. (2005). Noradrenergic modulation of emotion-induced forgetting and remembering. The Journal of Neuroscience, 25(27), 6343–6349. 

Mayo Clinic. (2018). Amnesia. Retrieved from

https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/amnesia/diagnosis-treatment/drc-20353366

Infantile Amnesia and Causes
Infantile Amnesia is defined as the failure of an individual to remember events from their early years of life. According to Freud, infantile amnesia usually entails a loss of memory of events that occurred before the sixth or eighth year. (Freud 1905,1953) Freud asserted that many early childhood memories were to startling to recall and were therefore filtered out and become screen memories.(Johnston n.d.)

There are several explanations for the occurrence of infantile amnesia, which include; neurological immaturity, lack of memory ability, lack of sense of self, and amnesia caused by sexual abuse. There is no clear consensus on the causes of infantile amnesia, but most clinicians agree that any of these factors play a role in infantile amnesia. Over the next few paragraphs we will explore these factors in detail.

Neurological Immaturity

The theory of neurological immaturity suggests that the brain of a young simply isn't developed enough…...

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References

Bauer, Patricia J. (1996) Award Addresses: What Do Infants Recall of Their Lives? Memory for Specific Events by One- to Two-Year-olds. American Psychologist. 51: 30.

Chu et al. (1999) Memories of Childhood abuse: Disassociation, Amnesia, and Coroboration. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 156:749-755

Johnston, E (n.d.) Lecture 8 Infantile Amnesia

However, through a review of the clinical history and the semantic debate over the relationship between trauma -- especially sexual abuse -- during childhood and the surfacing of psychologically distressing consequences in adulthood, it is evident that the diagnosis of repression is often misapplied. "The term 'dissociative." As applied to these disorders, is better construed as a descriptive label (referring to loss of conscious access to memory) than any pathological process instigated by trauma." (Kilstrom, 36) This means that the 'amnesia' triggered by such events can accurately be regarded as the involuntary mode of memory loss rather than the intentional psychological conditioning to 'block out' negative experiences. To an extent, this verifies the claim that amnesia may be caused by emotional trauma, even though this is empirically elusive in a case by case basis.

orks Cited:

Barrett, J. (2002). Amnesia. Health, a to Z. Online at http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/amnesia.jsp

Gleaves, DH, Smith, S.M.,Butler, L.D., &…...

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Works Cited:

Barrett, J. (2002). Amnesia. Health, a to Z. Online at http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/amnesia.jsp

Gleaves, DH, Smith, S.M.,Butler, L.D., & Spiegel, D. (2004). False and recovered memories in the laboratory and clinical: A review of experimental evidence. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11, 3-28.

Kilstrom, J.F. (2004). An unbalanced balancing act: Blocked, recovered and false memories in the laboratory and clinic. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11, 34-41.

LEF. (2003). Amnesia: Online Reference. Life Extension. Online at

The tale of Chibana Shoichi's, the Okinawan supermarket owner, demonstrates how there is still a major segment of society that believes in the "emperor system," even in Okinawa. However, Field exposes how these people have been forced to conform with this system, though social pressure, threats, and even violence. But despite these obstacles, there are still people like Shoichi who will speak out against this system and its historical amnesia. However, this fight has only just begun and not all those who stand up against the system are successful. Mrs. Nakaya was unsuccessful in her attempt to stop the government from using her husband to reinforce a system that she felt was unjust and restricted her religious beliefs. The response by the government signifies how deeply ingrained into Japanese society is the "emperor system," and how many Japanese, including the Japanese Supreme Court, see no differentiation between tradition Shinto-based…...

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Works Cited

Field, Norma. In the Realm of a Dying Emperor. New York: Pantheon, 1991. Print.

Cognitive Effects of Brain Injury and Disease
The care of patients with brain injury and diseases has improved substantially over the last thirty years. Nonetheless, the acute cognitive effects caused by brain injury are still a problem for the survivors. Such impairments are substantial contributors to functional disability after brain injury and reduce quality of life for affected persons and their families (Schultza, Cifub, McNameea, Nicholsb; Carneb, 2011). Accordingly, it is important for clinicians providing care to persons with brain injury to be familiar with the cognitive squeal of such injuries, their neuropathophysiologic bases, the treatment options that may alleviate such problems, and their effects on functional ability and quality of life.

Literature eview: Cognitive Effects

The anatomy, pathophysiology, and cognitive sequel of brain injury and diseases vary as a function of cause of brain injury. Accordingly, identification of the specific cause of injury and other relevant factors (e.g., age, injury severity, comorbid…...

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References

Aaro, Jonsson C., Smedler, AC., Leis, Ljungmark M., & Emanuelson, I (2009). Long-term cognitive outcome after neurosurgically treated childhood traumatic brain injury. Brain Injury: ISSN: 1362-301X, Vol. 23 (13-14), pp. 1008-16. doi:10.3109/02699050903379354

Cozzarelli, Tara A. (2010). Evaluation and Treatment of Persistent Cognitive Dysfunction Following Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. LCDR USPHS. Journal of Special Operations Medicine. Volume 10, Edition 1.pg 39-42. Retrieved from:  http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed 

Howard, RS., Holmes, PA & Koutroumanidis, MA. (2011). Hypoxic-ischaemic brain injury. Practical Neurology [Pract Neurol], ISSN: 1474-7766, Vol. 11 (1), pp. 4-18; PMID: 21239649. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2010.235218

Kinnunen, Kirsi Maria., Greenwood, Richard., Powell, Jane Hilary., Leech, Robert., Hawkins, Peter Charlie., Bonnelle, Valerie., Patel, Maneesh Chandrakan., Counsell, Serena Jane., and Sharp, David James (2011). White matter damage and cognitive impairment after traumatic brain injury. Brain A Journal Of Neurology. 134; 449 -- 463. doi:10.1093/brain/awq347

Memento Film Analysis
Christopher Nolan's Academy Award nominated film Memento provided a new perspective on film noir and helped to redefine how a narrative was presented in cinema. Memento stars Guy Pierce as Leonard Shelby, Carrie-Anne Moss as Natalie, and Joe Pantoliano as Teddy/John Edward Gammell. Through Leonard's psyche, the film's narrative structure, and its mise-en-scene, Nolan is able to demonstrate the perpetual conflict that arises in the film between good and evil, fact and fiction, and instinct and knowledge.

Memento is the story of Leonard Shelby, a former insurance investigator, who is suffering from anterograde amnesia. In the film, Leonard is trying to find the person that raped and killed his wife, but has trouble retaining any information long enough for him to make any progress in his investigation. However, through a series of techniques designed to jog his memory, including tattoo, Polaroid pictures, and extensive note taking, Leonard is able…...

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Works Cited

Borde, Raymond and Etienne Chaumeton. A Panorama of American Film Noir: 1941-1953.

Trans. Paul Hammond. San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2002. Print.

Memento. Dir. Christopher Nolan. USA: Summit Entertainment, 2000. Hulu. 20 July 2012.

Naremore, James. "American Film Noir: The History of an Idea." Film Quarterly 49.2 (1995-

Alzheimer's disease has developed into a major health concern for the elderly population throughout the world. This degenerative brain disorder was first described by Alois Alzheimer in 1907. Today Alzheimer's is one of the most prevalent forms of brain disorders contributing to as much as 50 to 70% of all reported cases of dementia. Over the years the study of early onset Alzheimer's disease (pre-senile AD) has kind of overshadowed the study of late onset Alzheimer in elderly group. However the disease statistics indicate an increasing susceptibility of the older population. Approximately 5% of the population above 65 years of age and around 20% of the people above 85 years of age are affected by Alzheimer's disease. Hence what was previously ignored as an inevitable old age symptom (senile dementia) is now being properly recognized as an illness. This new perspective of AD has resulted in a drastically altered understanding…...

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Bibliography

Simon Lovestone and Martin Dunitz, " Early diagnosis and Treatment of Alzheimer's

Disease," Published by Martin Dunitz Ltd., 1998

Gerry Bennett and DR Mark Jones, "The Alzheimer's Handbook," Vermilion

Publishers, 2001

Chapter 2:

Review of Related Literature

Chapter Introduction

This chapter provides a review of the literature concerning hypnosis, Eastern Meditation, Chi Kung, and Nei Kung and how these methods are used to treat various ailments and improve physical and mental functioning. A summary of the review concludes the chapter.

Hypnosis

In his study, "Cognitive Hypnotherapy in the Management of Pain," Dowd (2001) reports that, "Several theories have een proposed to account for the effect of hypnosis. State theories assume that the hypnotic trance is qualitatively different from all other human experiences. From this perspective, trance capacity is supposedly a fairly stale trait that exhiits sustantial individual differences. Nonstate theories, often referred to as social learning, social psychological or cognitive-ehavioral theories of hypnosis propose that hypnotic phenomena are related to social and psychological characteristics such as hope, motivation, expectancy, elief in the therapist, desire to please the therapist, a positive initial trance experience, and the definition…...

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bibliography. (2010).   / pages/7857/Meditation-Eastern.html.http://science.jrank.org 

Many religious traditions have practices that could possibly be labeled meditation. In Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, these practices are usually associated with prayer, contemplation, or recitation of sacred texts. In the religious traditions of the Native Americans, Australian aboriginals, Siberian peoples, and many others, what could be identified as meditation techniques are incorporated within the larger rubric of shamanism. It is, however, in the religions of Asia that meditation has been most developed as a religious method.

Meditation has played an important role in the ancient yogic traditions of Hinduism and also in more recent Hindu-based new religious movements such as Maharishi Mahesh Yogi's Transcendental Meditation program. But it is most especially in the monastic or "elite" forms of the various traditions of Buddhism (Theravada, Tibetan/Vajrayana, and Ch'an/Zen) that meditation techniques have taken center stage and have been developed to the highest degree of sophistication and complexity.

Short-Term Effects of Meditation vs. Relaxation on Cognitive Functioning. Contributors: Gillian King - author, Jeffrey Coney - author. Journal Title: Journal of Transpersonal Psychology. Volume: 38. Issue: 2. Publication Year: 2006. Page Number: 200+.

Authors cite the lack of relevant studies concerning the effect, if any, of meditation on short-term improvements in cognitive performance. The results of this study clearly showed that meditation, per se, does not produce a short-term improvement in cognitive performance compared to other relaxation techniques.

In the end of the nineteenth century, research experiments were carried out on memory. In this period, the memory dominated by the symbol of evolutionary development in nature. In nineteenth century, many new technologies were developed such as radiography, photography and cinema cameras to recall and preserve memory. "Memorializing the achievements of individuals considered as members of families is the earliest popular use of photography" (Sontag, 2001, p. 43).
These new ways to store the historical events increased the archives and documents. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, a feeling of anxiety could be seen in the people because of the interruption in the use of the traditional forms of memory.

In traditional societies, people could easily interpret the past and their behavior and they could easily and openly carry their past and its meanings. On the other hand, in modern societies, the people were disconnected from their past…...

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References

Cf. Hans Mol. (1976). Identity and the Sacred. Oxford: Blackwell, Gladigow; and Eibl-Eibesfeldt.

Friedrich Nierzsche, Werke, vol. 3, ed. K. Schlechta (Munich: Hanser, 1964).

Hacking, I. (1995). Rewriting the Soul. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Le Goff, J. (1992). History and Memory, New York: Columbia University Press.

3+).
If Americans find out about government law enforcement policy primarily via media as Elias contents, it is axiomatic that we find out about international crime via media. If we cannot be bothered to read for ourselves the bills introduced to Congress that result in laws to find out what those laws really mean, we certainly cannot be bothered to read and interpret the Koran to see where the truth lies in that document.

Elias offers an insight that works equally well for the failure of America's increasingly tough stands on crime and our acceptance of Islamic murderers as martyrs, and it is this:

With few exceptions, the media have uncritically reproduced official, conservative, 'law-and-order' perspectives with little fundamental analysis of their success or failure. They have also repeatedly covered and promoted 'crime wars' and 'drug wars' which inevitably fail but which are periodically resuscitated (with the media's help) as if these…...

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References

Charles, R. (2005, June 2) Martyrs and language. The Washington Times, p. A18. Retrieved 11 November 2005 from www.questia.com.

Elias, R. (1994, Feb.) Official stories: Media coverage of American crime policy, The Humanist, p. 3+. Retrieved 11 November 2005 from www.questia.com.

Memory refers to a mental process where information is encoded, stored, and retrieved for use (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968). The process of memory is not, contrary to what many believe, like a tape recorder that accurately records events. Instead, our recollection of events is pliable and subject to a number of influences (Loftus, 1979). For instance Buckley-Zistel (2006) discussed how the recollection of the past of horrific events such as the 1990's genocide in wanda is influenced by variables such as the roles of the people during the event or their current living situation. Connerton (2008) attempted to disentangle the notions that remembering is usually considered a virtue and forgetting is necessarily a failing of a person or people. He noted that forgetting is not necessarily a unitary phenomena and that forgetting might have a purpose. Even though wandans claim that remembering the genocide is important to avoiding reoccurrences in…...

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References

Atkinson, R.C. & Shiffrin, R.M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In K.W. Spence & J.T. Spence, The psychology of learning and motivation Volume 2 (pp. 89-195). New York: Academic Press.

Buckley-Zistel, S. (2006). Remembering to forget: Chosen amnesia as a strategy for local coexistence in post-genocide Rwanda. Africa, 76(2), 131-150.

Connerton, P. (2008). Seven types of forgetting. Memory Studies, 1, 59-71.

Loftus, E.F. (1979). The malleability of human memory. American Scientist, 67, 312-320.

I. Intrusive Memories and Thoughts

- Recurrent, involuntary, and distressing memories of the traumatic event
- Nightmares or flashbacks that vividly recreate the traumatic experience
- Unwanted and intrusive thoughts or images related to the trauma

II. Avoidance and Emotional Numbing

- Conscious efforts to avoid thoughts, feelings, or reminders of the trauma
- Emotional detachment and difficulty feeling positive emotions
- Restricted engagement in previously enjoyable activities
- Loss of interest in once-pleasurable pursuits

III. Hyperarousal and Reactivity

- Heightened startle response and exaggerated reactions to perceived threats
- Difficulty sleeping or staying asleep
- Irritability, anger, or aggressive outbursts
- Hypervigilance and difficulty concentrating

IV. Negative Changes in Cognitions and Mood

- Negative....