Absolutism v. elativism
Absolutism and relativism represent the extreme ends of the ethical discussion of reality (Harman, 2000). They describe the approach that individuals adopt to make value decisions in their lives. Values are the sustenance of human life that provide passion and meaning and are often the motivation that keeps society cooperating toward a common goal. How these values are determined, however, is not done consistently throughout society (Bloomfield, 2003). On the one end of the spectrum are the absolutists who view every ethical situation in life as being a certainty while on the other end are the relativists who view things much more subjectively. For the relativist, nothing is certain.

For the moral absolutist there is a single or universal standard that is equally applicable to everyone. The absolutist believes that there is one moral law all must obey and that there are no gray areas. Everything is black and…...

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References

Bloomfield, P. (2003). Is There a Moral High Ground? The Southern Journal of Philosophy, 511-526.

Foote, P. (2002). Moral Relativism. In P. Foote, Moral Dilemmas and Other Topics in Moral Philosophy (pp. 20-36). Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Harman, G. (2000). Is There a Single True Morality. In G. Harman, Explaining Value: and Other Essays in Moral Philosophy (pp. 77-101). New York: Oxford University Press.

Veatch, R.M. (2003). Is There a Common Morality? Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal, 189-192.

During the seventeenth century, monarchs attained power and authority that was unprecedented, leading historians to use the term "absolutism" to describe these political systems, while other historians argue that the term is misleading because neither the ambitions of the monarchs nor the results constituted political absolutism (Durand pp). However, Louis XIV established such a powerful monarchy in France, that when he famously declared, "L'etat c'est moi" ("I am the state"), it began an "association of state power with the person wielding it that culminated in the cult of personality of a Hitler, Stalin, or Mao" in the twentieth century (Marshall pp).

Some historians believe that the general climate of absolutism offered the monarch no more than the opportunity to deliberate on matters of state without being affected by intrigue and pressure, and ensure the judicial process followed his wishes and directives (Durand pp). Therefore, as an actual political system, absolutism is…...

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Works Cited

Durand, G. "Absolutism Myth and Reality." http://edweb.tusd.k12.az.us/UHS/WebSite/courses/WC/Historiography/aristocracy_and_absolutism.htm

Corley, Christopher R. "Paris in the Age of Absolutism: an Essay."

Canadian Journal of History. 12/1/2004.

Hooker, Richard. "The Age of Absolutism."  http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ENLIGHT/PRE.htm

Absolutism and Exclusionism in Religion in Truth in Religion: The Plurality of Religion and Unity of Truth by Mortimer Adler
Numerous discourses discussing issues about the plurality or absolutism of religion, relating these issues in the manner of living, particularly the moral aspect of subsisting to a particular form of religious philosophy. The development of a more complex, yet organized, human society at the turn of the 20th century gave incidence to the development of various philosophical disciplines. These philosophical disciplines include revolutionary viewpoints about philosophy, religion, and morality.

The relationship among philosophy, religion, and morality is studied in Mortimer Adler's discourse on religious philosophy and morality. In Truth in Religion: The Plurality of Religion and Unity of Truth, Adler centers on the argument that in human society, there is only one "truth," which can be illustrated through religion. Hence, it follows that if there is only one "truth," then all other…...

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Bibliography

Adler, M. (1990). Truth in Religion: The Plurality of Religion and Unity. New York: MacMillan Publishing.

Fishbane, M. (1987). Judaism: Revelation and Traditions. CA: Harper-Collins.

French Enlightenment
The Failure of Enlightened Absolutism in France: An Analysis of the Economic and Political Situation of the Country during the Enlightenment Period

The dawn of the 18th century saw the emergence of a period that eventually determined the future of modern society -- that is, the Age of Enlightenment. Under the Age of Enlightenment, the prevalent ideology is that it is possible for people to formulate and enforce reform and changes in the society. Social reform is especially applicable in the European experience, wherein the rigid and conservative influence of Christianity has led to the development of a society that is characteristically theocentric.

The Enlightenment is characterized by a shift of society's concern to the natural and social sciences through scientific observation, which necessitates objectivism and rational thinking. These changes in the character of European society are brought about by the rise of modernization, where agricultural-traditional society with its norms, rituals,…...

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Bibliography

Kagan, D. (1995). Western Heritage. NJ: Prentice Hall.

Moore, B. (1966). Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Boston: Beacon Press.

Preston, P.W. (1997). Development Theory: An Introduction. MA: Blackwell Publishers.

Two examples of this "Enlightened Despotism" were Catherine the Great of Russia and Frederick the Great of Prussia. They based their monarchial powers, not on the Divine Right of Kings, but upon the need for a strong authoritative government to promote greater welfare within the state. These rulers created greater national standards and regulations that helped the state create a strong political infrastructure that veered away from traditional custom-based doctrine. As a result, Enlightened Absolutism became the norm within European government as monarchs began to systematically create a method to entrench national level reforms that would provoke greater political, economic and social stability.
Ultimately all four of these events are strongly interrelated because they were changes in the mindset of individuals. At the core level however, they were all reactions and extensions of the Reformation movement, which promoted greater individual liberty and free thinking. Absolutism and its evolution led to…...

Second Treatise of Government," by John Locke is a revolutionary philosophical work that directly opposed the idea of absolutism.
Absolutism held that the best form of government was autocratic, and was based on both the belief in the Divine Right of Kings and the theory of natural law, as espoused by Thomas Hobbes in Leviathan. In the context of the absolutism of Louis XIV, and the political events surrounding Oliver Cromwell, Locke's "Second Treatise of Government" was clearly a revolutionary work on the structure and purpose of political authority.

One of the greatest debates of the 16th and 17th centuries was over the nature of political authority. The belief in divine right of kings that had once held sway over the estern world was quickly dissolving. In its place was a rapidly emerging idea of individualism that took form with the Renaissance and the French Revolution, and took root in the…...

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Works Cited

Hobbes, T. The Leviathan. Chapters XIII - XXI. Reproduced at: The History of Western Philosophy from 1492 to 1776, William Uzgalis, Oregon State University. 15 October 2002.  http://www.orst.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/hobbes/leviathan-contents.html 

Locke, J. The Second Treatise of Civil Government. Chapters 2-8. Reproduced at: The History of Western Philosophy from 1492 to 1776, William Uzgalis, Oregon State University. 15 October 2002. http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/locke/locke2/2nd-contents.html

Four Stages in the Development of the Person ho Engages in Critical Thinking Are as Follows:
Stage One: The Unreflective Thinker. This is a stage in which the person is not aware of any problems within his thinking process. The individual might we of average intelligence and living a normal life but may now know that he is making "assumptions, forming concepts, drawing inferences," but he probably is not aware that his reasons and purposes are "clearly formulated" (Paul, et al., 2013). In this phase the individual makes decisions that are simplistic and does not "seriously question the thinking" that should go into every decision (Paul, 65).

Stage Two: The Challenged Thinker: This is the point at which the individual begins to realize there is a problem with his comprehension of issues in his life -- and he realizes he needs clarity. hat needs to happen in this stage is the…...

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Works Cited

Paul, R., and Elder, L. (2013). Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your

Professional and Personal life. New York: Pearson Education.

Stratton, J. (1999). Critical Thinking for College Students. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.

President: 1. The President's opening
The president's opening remarks functioned as a means of collectivizing his listeners, some of whom may not have voted for him or did not support particular policies or measures he has enacted. The best way of getting people who were not his supporters to listen to his address and to even consider taking him seriously was for him to emphasize the fact that he is an American just like they are. Hence, he cited a number of phrases that reflected the values which the country was founded upon, such as those existing in the Declaration of Independence and within the U.S. Constitution. Additionally, it appeared as though the president was framing his address and his own agenda as a continuation of these important historical American concepts.

The philosophy being suggested in some of the president's rhetoric in his inaugural address is that there needs to be…...

Absolution vs. Relativism
Columnist illiam ineke points out that the real problem with relativism is that it gives no place to stop the slippery slide, no place to stand and say "no" (ineke pp). In other words, each step taken simply makes it easier to take the next step until, eventually, society finds no logical basis for saying "no" to anything (ineke pp). Yet, if the error of moral relativism is that it provides society with no real basis on which to say "no," then the error of objective morality is that it provides no real basis on which to say "yes" (ineke pp).

ineke uses the example of AIDS in Africa, citing Vatican ambassador to Zambia, Archbishop Orlando Antonini, who said "The use of condoms still constitutes a false solution to a real problem, although it is a burning issue in Africa" (ineke pp). However, ineke says, "millions of Africans are…...

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Work Cited

Cahill, Lisa Sowle. (2003 March 01). Moral Relativism, Moral Diversity, and Human

Relationships. Theological Studies. Retrieved August 06, 2005 from HighBeam Research Library Web site.

The Changing Role of Moral Philosophy. Retrieved August 06, 2005 from:

 http://home.gwu.edu/~jartz/alter/next/moral.html

eligion
Is Jesus the Only Savoir? Is onald H. Nash's opportunity to develop a passionate and well-developed argument answering yes: yes, Jesus is the only Savoir. However, Nash does not rest on the reader's understanding or experience of faith to make his case. The author takes a different approach, using logic and reason to explain that at least to a believer in Christ, there can be no other paradigm other than Christian absolutism. According to Nash, pluralism by its very definition violates the tenets inherent in the New Testament. It is therefore impossible for a theologian, especially a Christian one, to be a pluralist.

Nash's scapegoat, for better or worse, is John Hick. Hick is a theologian who has succumbed to the temptation of thinking pluralistically and who attempts to show that Jesus is in fact not the only savior. Nash picks apart Hick's argument by revealing the logical fallacies embedded within…...

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References

Bible: New International Version (NIV)

Johnsey, Allen. "A Critique of Is Jesus the Only Savior?" Nov 5, 2006. Retrieved online: http://www.mainstreetmission.com/index.php?p=1_76_A-Critique-of-Is-Jesus-the-Only-Savior-

Johnson, Keith E. "John Hick's Pluralistic Hypothesis and the Problem of Conflicting Truth-Claims." Retrieved online:  http://www.leaderu.com/wri/articles/hick.html 

Nash, Ronald H. "Is Jesus the Only Savoir?" Christian Research Institute. Retrieved online:  http://www.equip.org/articles/is-jesus-the-only-savior/

tomorrow / Bright before us / Like a flame. (Alain Locke, "Enter the New Negro," 1925)
rom the 1920's Alain Leroy Locke has been known as a prominent figure in the Harlem Renaissance. Through his writings, his actions and his education, Locke worked to educate not only White America, but also the Negro, about the beauty of the Negro heritage. He emphasized the idea that no single culture is more important than another. Yet it was also important to give sufficient attention to one's own culture and its beauty. This was Locke's philosophy of cultural pluralism.

The White heritage has enjoyed prominence for a large part of American history. During the colonization period, the Whites have emphasized their own superiority while at the same time ensuring that people of other ethnic heritages knew in no uncertain terms their own inferiority. This gave rise to a nearly monocultural America, where all other…...

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Furthermore Locke's writings are lauded for their cultural and historical importance rather than their literary style. Being very prominent in educational and artistic circles I find this hard to believe. Certainly a man who has been educated in the highest of quality schools should be able to produce something of purely literary merit.

Despite these issues which are admittedly a matter of opinion, it is very significant that Locke's influence extends to modern literary circles in this way. Locke's influence in the areas of education, culture and empowerment also remain to this day in terms of recognized Black culture and the promotion of cultural pluralism. The ALLS has been officially recognized by the American Philosophical Association in a letter from Secretary-Treasurer, William Mann, on November 26, 1997.

Locke's influence thus reaches far beyond his lifespan in order to not only empower and inspire, but also to enlighten and to entertain. Locke was the epitome of the New Negro.

In Cultural Ethical elativism, Universalism, Absolutism (2005), it was mentioned that Kant said that people engage a particular space in creation and morality can be figured out in one supreme directive of reason or imperative that all responsibilities and duties drawn from; Kant described an imperative as any intention which asserts a particular act or inaction to be compulsory; a hypothetical imperative requires action in a particular condition: "if I wish to quench my thirst, I must drink something;" -- a categorical imperative, in contrast, indicates an absolute, unconditional obligation that states its influence in all conditions, both necessary as well as justified as an end in itself; and it is most recognized in its first expression: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law."

In Cultural Ethical elativism, Universalism, Absolutism (2005), it was stated that Kant expressed…...

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References

Cultural Ethical Relativism, Universalism, Absolutism (2005). Retrieved on March 22, 2009 at  http://www.tamucc.edu/~sencerz/relat.htm 

Timmermann, J. (2007). Kant's Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals: A Commentary, Cambridge University Press, 189.

Olmec
Although scientists found artifacts and art objects of the Olmecs; until this century they did not know about the existence of the Olmecs. Most of the objects which were made by this community were associated with other civilizations, such as Mayan, Toltec or Chichimecan. The Olmec lived between 1600 B.C. And 1400 B.C. In South Mexico. The name of this tribe comes from an Aztec word "ollin" which means "land of rubber."

At first they ate fish and they later start to farm, and that made it possible for them to "develop the first major civilization in Mesoamerica." (The Olmec Civilization) Thanks to the steady food supplies the Olmec population grew and some came to have other occupations. "Some became potters or weavers. Others became priests or teachers." (Ibidem) Once the population grew, so did their farming villages which developed into cities. The present-day city of San Lorenzo was built…...

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References:

1. The Olmec Civilization, Retrieved December 14, 2012, from the Pleasant Valley School website:  http://www.pvsd.k12.ca.us/180120521134440680/lib/180120521134440680/11-2_SG_7th.pdf 

2. Villeacas, Daniel, Mother Culture of Mexico: The Olmecs, Denver Public Schools, 2005, Retrieved December 14, 2012, from the Denver Public Schools website:  http://etls.dpsk12.org/documents/Alma/units/MotherCultureMexicoOlmecs.pdf 

3. Olmec -- Masterworks of Ancient Mexico, Retrieved December 14, 2012, from the Los Angeles County Museum of Art website:  http://www.lacma.org/eduprograms/EvesforEds/OlmecEssay.pdf 

4. Hansen, Valerie, Curtis Kenneth, Curtis, Kenneth R., Voyages in World History: To 1600, Volume 1, Cengage Learning, December 30, 2008

Ethics
The Divine Command theory of morality is known as a nonconsequentialist theory because this particular theory of morality is one that is not in any way based on the consequences or outcomes of specific action, but rather holds that all actions have any intrinsic rightness or wrongness. In the case of Divine Command Theory, rightness or wrongness is decided based upon whether or not a specific action can be said to be in accordance with the dictates of God. Indeed, while there are advantages to this idea of morality, such as the more simple categorization of actions into a dichotomy of what is permitted, there are also many sever disadvantages, as well. These disadvantages can make the view difficult to entertain. For example, one of the main issues depends on the source of the divine command. If the divine moral commands come out of scripture, for example, how can on…...

Ethics of Bioethics
To the prudent thinker and scholar, there is little doubt that right or wrong is certainly relative. Categorical imperatives and absolutes help people to understand theories and ideas. However, they have little pragmatic value in life as it exists. Erudition in the areas of moral relativism, moral absolutism, and moral objectivism certainly confirm the preceding thesis. Additionally, there are numerous examples found in different areas of life that confirm the conviction propagated in this paper as well.

The tenet of moral relativism certainly helps to buttress this conviction that right or wrong is simply relative. Some of the best examples of this fact are readily supplied by nature. In fact, basic bioethical thought into the food chain supports this viewpoint as well. The reality of life on this planet and as found within nature is that most organisms need to consume other organisms to survive. This fact is…...

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References

Beauchamp, Tom L., LeRoy Walters, Jeffrey P. Kahn, and Anna C. Mastroianni, eds. (2014). Contemporary Issues in Bioethics. 8th Ed. Boston, MA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, pp. 1-12.

The Kennedy Institute of Ethics. (2014). Introduction to bioethics: bioethics at the bedside. www.youtube.com Retrieved from  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c3I0SxI2grM