This reflected the very essence of absolutist thought. The Thirty Years War, which started as a religious battle between Protestants and Catholics, developed into a power struggle between many European powers, but most notably the French Bourbons and the Austrian Hapsburgs. The massive destruction that this war caused allowed new powers -- notably Austria, Brandenburg-Prussia, and Russia to emerge as powerful new empires in Europe. Meanwhile, Parliamentary limits on Charles I's power in England came to a head when he was denied funding for wars and other endeavors; his subsequent actions led to a revolution in which he lost his throne and head.
In the art world, religious scenes remained popular, as they had been during the Renaissance. Colors became richer, however, and styles more ornate, reflecting the economic growth of the time. Scenes other than religious scenes, ancient myths, and the extreme upper class began to appear also, reflecting…...
Science and Religion in the 17th Century
he Interaction between Science and Religion in the Seventeenth Century:
ransforming our World
he world we know today has been shaped by many important events. Some people may see the industrial and the technological revolutions of the past two centuries as central pillars that have helped humanity not only survive, but also advance greatly. Others may see political revolutions as central to our society's progress, be they wars for independence in the colonies of the 20th century, or be they the mother of drastic political change, the French Revolution. Others yet may believe that cultural revolutions, such as the Enlightenment of the 18th century, a phenomenon that spurred great change and bore great thinkers, truly altered society. However, above all, one must note that without the interaction between science and religion and the issues this brought to light in the 16th and 17th centuries, none of…...
mlaTo prove his voice, even under arrest, Galileo continued making discoveries, most notably discovering sunspots on the surface of the Sun. Thus, he was not silenced, and his works have survived even to today and have greatly aided other scientific advancements. Another notable example of fantastic scientific advancement and survival is found in Nicolaus Copernicus' Gold Jagiellonian Globe, a globe surrounded by a celestial metal sphere with a clock inside that can tell date, time, month and the position of the sun in the sky. Such machines, though not available to the greater population, at least gave other intellectuals the ability to see beyond religion and start questioning their world, thus paving the way, much later, for the masses. [3: Commemorating Copernicus. Science News, Vol. 103, No. 15 (Apr. 14, 1973), p. 236 Published by: Society for Science & the PublicArticle Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3958075]
These "disagreements" between science and religion, exemplified by such people as Galileo and Copernicus would eventually give way to the Enlightenment in the 18th century, which, as aforementioned, truly transformed the world. Though at the time it was difficult to be on a different side than the church, the obstinate stance of these early intellectuals was eventually rewarded. Without their efforts, for example, the period of Enlightenment may never have taken place. Because these scientists existed and worked hard at making and publishing their discoveries, during the 1700's, society continued to make unparalleled progress in the cultural, astrological, astronomical, political, mathematical and artistic fields.
In other words, the interaction between science and religion for two centuries eventually led to a temporary dissipation of ritualistic, religious dogma in the higher strata of society, and shaped events that were to alter forever the landscape of the Earth in the following centuries. It is due to the Enlightenment, and specifically the works of such philosophers as John Locke, whose essays are unparalleled in wisdom, for example, that America is a democratic country. The inability of religious dogma to slow down the ever-quickening pace of discovery was all too real and the measurable positives of science during the 16th and 17th centuries were too great of an advance to be resisted. Eventually, religion had to step back and give science its well-deserved foot forward. [4: Uzgalis, William. "John Locke," The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = .]
While France relied on direct involvement of the royal power, either through the King or his ministers, ritain had a more formal royal patronage, that encouraged the activity, but did not sponsor or finance it. This also meant that in the former case, the activity was directed towards studies that could directly help the state, while in the latter case, the activity was much less directed by royal interest.
ibliography
1. Saunders, Stewart. Louis XIV: Patron of Science and Technology. From The Sun King: Louis XIV and the New World, edited by Steven G. Reinhardt, pp. 155-67. (New Orleans: Louisiana Museum Foundation, 1984.)
2. History of the Royal Society. On the Internet at http://royalsociety.org/History-of-the-Royal-Society/. Last retrieved on July 22, 2010
3. Findlen, Paula. Founding a Scientific Academy: Gender, Patronage and Knowledge in Early Eighteenth-Century Milan. Republics of Letters: A Journal for the Study of Knowledge, Politics, and the Arts 1, no. 1 (May…...
mlaBibliography
1. Saunders, Stewart. Louis XIV: Patron of Science and Technology. From The Sun King: Louis XIV and the New World, edited by Steven G. Reinhardt, pp. 155-67. (New Orleans: Louisiana Museum Foundation, 1984.)
2. History of the Royal Society. On the Internet at Last retrieved on July 22, 2010http://royalsociety.org/History-of-the-Royal-Society/ .
3. Findlen, Paula. Founding a Scientific Academy: Gender, Patronage and Knowledge in Early Eighteenth-Century Milan. Republics of Letters: A Journal for the Study of Knowledge, Politics, and the Arts 1, no. 1 (May 1, 2009)
4. Thomas Dereham to James Jurin. 22 June 1722, in Early Letters, Royal Society in London, D.2.12
Christopher Hill's ideology and opinion of historical analysis in terms of religion and economics
According to the British Marxist historian Christopher Hill in 1961, the then-common historical interpretation of the revolutionary events of the 17th century was "that the English Revolution of 1640-60 was a great social movement like the French Revolution of 1789," at least in the eyes of most liberal historians, while conservative or Tory British historians tended to see the entire movement as misguided. (Hill, 1961, Introduction) Thus, more often than not, the transformation of the English Civil ar is seen as a fight between the forces of reaction and the forces of democratic pluralism, with the forces of reaction embodied in "the despotism" of the British King Charles I, who "was defended by the reactionary forces of the established Church and conservative landlords," after the king was set upon by the forces of Parliament and the…...
mlaWork Cited
Hill, Christopher. The Century of Revolution, 1603 -- 1714. First published 1940 and rewritten in 1961. Reprinted 1980 & 1982. London: Lawrence and Wishart. Transcribed by Anthony Blunden, 2002 at Marxists on the Web. Available on the web on 2005 http://www.marxists.org/archive/hill-christopher/english-revolution/
Exoticism in 19th & 20th Century Opera
Exoticism in 19th and 20th Century Opera
Exoticism was a cultural invention of the 17th Century, enjoying resurgence in the 19th and 20th Centuries due to increased travel and trade by Europeans in foreign, intriguing continents. The "est," eventually including the United States, adapted and recreated elements of those alluring cultures according to estern bias, creating escapist art forms that blended fantasy with reality. Two examples of Exoticism in Opera are Georges Bizet's "Carmen," portraying cultural bias toward gypsies and Basques, and Giacomo Puccini's "Madama Butterfly," portraying cultural bias toward the Far East. "Carmen" was developed from a single original source while "Madama Butterfly" was a fusion of several sources that developed successively; nevertheless, both operas remain distinguished examples of Exoticism in Opera.
Exoticism in History and Culture
Meaning "that which is introduced from or originating in a foreign (especially tropical) country or as something which is…...
mlaWorks Cited
Boyd, A. (n.d.). Exoticism. Retrieved from The Imperial Archive Web site: http://www.qub.ac.uk/imperial/key-concepts/Exoticism.htm
New York City Opera Project. (n.d.). New York City Opera Project: Carmen | Madama Butterfly. Retrieved from Columbia University Web site: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/music/NYCO
The Metropolitan Opera. (2011). Carmen | Madama Butterfly. Retrieved from Metropolitan Opera Family Web site: http://www.metoperafamily.org
Education in America
The seventeenth century has been called, as an age of faith, and for the colonists a preoccupation with religion, as probably right. The religious rebel of the sixteenth century was severe and shaking as its impact was felt both on the continent as well as in America. However, intelligent Americans of the seventeenth century thought and realized that education could, and may be should, be a handmaiden to religion. Yet, humanism was there more than religion in the intellectual diet of the educated Americans 1.
The humanists preceded their work at a stable speed, which, affected education of northern, middle & southern colonies of America. However, many argued that without much attention given to education, and without even realizing that the books comprised illustrations of better life were taught into schools in order to affect the life and mind of students, how could the aspiration of humanism be…...
mlaBibliography
1. George R. Waggoner; Barbara Ashton Waggoner. Education in Central America
University Press of Kansas. Lawrence, KS. 1971
2 H.E. Butler. Institutes of Oratory. Cambridge: Loeb Classical Library, Harvard
University Press, 1921, 4 vols.
Witchcraft in the 16th & 17 Centuries: Response to Literature
At first glance, a logical 21st Century explanation for the "witch craze" (also known as a witch-hunt) during the 16th and 17th centuries in Europe was based largely upon human ignorance. That is to say, the belief that a sub-culture of the general population performed witchcraft (and other magic-related phenomena), and ate the flesh of children, helped the unenlightened explain the unexplainable, and helped the ignorant deal with the darkness. Witchcraft seemingly established a reason that a person had that bad luck and it explained illnesses, and probably it helped explain natural calamities such as tornadoes, seismic catastrophes and sudden killer bolts of lightning or sheets of rain turned into disastrous flooding. Or it could even explain a stillborn child and a puppy with a broken leg. Somebody put a spell on that poor dog. Mysterious events that had no apparent…...
mlaBibliography
Behringer, Wolfgang (1997) Witchcraft Persecutions in Bavaria: Popular magic, religious zealotry and reason of state in early modern Europe. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Breslaw, G., Elaine (2000) Witches of the Atlantic World: A Historical Reader & Primary Sourcebook. New York, New York University Press.
Cohn, Norman (1975) Europe's Inner Demons: An Enquiry Inspired by the Great Witch-Hunt. New York, Basic Books.
Coudert, Allison P. (1989) The Myth of the Improved Status of Protestant Women: The Case of the Witchcraze. In: Brink, Jean, R., & Coudert, Allison P. ed. The Politics of gender in Early Modern Europe. Kirksville, MO, Sixteenth Century Journal Publishers.
Eighteenth Century was a time of profound change and upheaval in the western world. Alexander Pope, Samuel Pepys, Jonathan Swift were among the most prominent of 18th century writers, and each left his mark on literature. Importantly, the 1800s were characterized by the impact of social stratification on all aspects of life, including food, fashion, society, furnishings, and even literature.
Society and Culture
In 18th century Europe, the dominant powers were Russia, Prussia, France, Austria, and Britain. As such, any discussion of the 18th century usually focuses upon life in these leading nations. At the time, America was embroiled deeply in the development of a new nation, the shaking off of the shackles of slavery, and lessening English control in the American colonies. The United States Declaration of Independence was only signed late in the eighteenth century, in 1776 (ikipeda).
Lasting from 1701-1800, the 18th century is often synonymous with the ideals and…...
mlaWorks Cited
AllRefer. Interior decoration, Interior Design and Home Furnishings. AllRefer.com. 11 May 2004. http://reference.allrefer.com/encyclopedia/I/interior.html
Brainard, Rick. Daily Life: 18th Century Society: An Overview. 18th Century History. 11 May 2004. http://www.history1700s.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=105
Colonial Williamsburg. 18th Century Clothing. 11 May 2004. http://www.history.org/history/clothing/intro/index.cfm
Malaspina Great Books. Alexander Pope. 11 May 2004. http://www.malaspina.com/site/person_951.asp
Moll Flanders
The eighteenth century is often thought of a time of pure reason; after all, the eighteenth century saw the Enlightenment, a time when people believed fervently in rationality, objectivity and progress. However, Moll Flanders by Daniel Defoe also shows an era of chaos, depicted by a sort of wildness inside of people. Moll Flanders, the protagonist of Defoe's story, has been an orphan, a wife, mother, prostitute and a thief. Paula Backscheider (65) urges that Moll Flanders symbolizes the vicissitudes that were frequently experienced by many people in what was supposed to be an enlightened age. This is an obvious juxtaposition in Defoe's work. Defoe depicts a world that is not very compassionate, despite it being the Enlightenment period. Moll should have been better taken care of as an orphan, but she wasn't and this shows a complete lack of social responsibility on the government's side. There seems to…...
mlaWorks Cited
Backscheider, Paula R. Moll Flanders: The Making of a Criminal Mind. (Twayne's
Masterwork Studies). Twayne Publishers, 1990.
Defoe, Daniel. The Fortunes and Misfortunes of the Famous Moll Flanders. Oxford University Press, 2009.
Dupre, Louis K. The Enlightenment and the Intellectual of Modern Culture. Yale University Press, 2005.
The limitation of slave movement, was an action in response to the growing threat related to fugitive slaves (Selected records relating to slavery in early Virginia, n.d.). The conditions at the time and the harsh regulations concerning black slaves made them go in search for a different life, especially in Northern states (Petition to Governor, Council, and House of epresentatives of Massachusetts, 1773). Therefore, the Southerners were reluctant to offer any liberty that would somehow enable black people to gather and possibly plan insurrections or escape attempts. In addition, the tensions between the slaver states and the free ones were constantly growing because Free states were accusing slave ones of trying to use the slave population to increase its influence in the federal legislative body. In this sense, Northern states were somewhat ready to assist runaway slaves from South states.
Yet another reason, which influenced the way in which slaves…...
mlaReference
Africans in America. (n.d.) "From Indentured Servitude to Racial Slavery." The Terrible Transformation. Available at http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part1/1narr3.html
Galenson, David W. (1984). "The Rise and Fall of Indentured Servitude in the Americas: An Economic Analysis." The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 44, No. 1. pp. 1-26.
Jenkins, P. A history of the United States. New York: Palgrave, 1997.
Selected records relating to slavery in early Virginia. N.d. Available at http://www.fiu.edu/~woodk/vadocs.html
Classicism manifested itself in the 18th century. There are five references used for this paper.
There have been a number of cultural styles over the last centuries from Baroque to Classicism to Romanticism. It is interesting to look at Classicism and determine how it manifested itself in the 18th century.
Classicism
In order to determine the 18th century's manifestation of Classicism, it is important to understand what the term means. Classicism, or Neo-Classicism is used to "characterize the culture of 18th-century Europe, and contrasted with 19th-century Romanticism (unknown, Classicism)." In "art, music, and literature, it is a style that emphasizes the qualities traditionally considered characteristic of ancient Greek and Roman art, that is, reason, balance, objectivity, restraint, and strict adherence to form (unknown, Classicism)."
Music
Ludwig van Beethoven demonstrated Classicism during the end of his life with his string quartets. Beethoven first earned the respect of the Viennese people as a virtuoso pianist.
His piano…...
mlaWorks Cited
McLellan, Joseph. Beethoven, on Balance; Ecstatic Beauty Flows Through Borromeo
String Quartet. The Washington Post. (2000): 25 May. Pp. J03.
Unknown. Antiques & Collecting: Dedicated followers of all things. Birmingham Post.
2001): 11 August. Pp. 50.
American Economic Thought in the Seventeenth Century by Edgar AJ. Johnson. (New York: Russell & Russell, 1961). 202 p., (HB119.A2J6).
This book is a global look at what motivated colonization economically in the New World, and how American thought began to diverge from English commerce and economic thought. In the book, the author outlines several common economic and political concepts of pre-Revolutionary philosophy. Mainly, Johnson states political and personal beliefs were not inevitably separate things, but rather social structures dictated by one's political ties and perceptions. In other words, during these times, the most elevated position a person could hold was that of a politician. The basic concepts of the book include that the political structure reflected fundamental social structures, and the people were still largely under the influence of parliamentary representation, and the British Crown consistently oppressed them. Unfortunately, the end of the Revolution did not help matters. In…...
Dutch invasion of razil
In the 17th Century razil found itself the centre of contesting and warring European powers. The Portuguese colonization of razil was followed by the invasion from Holland as well as by French attempts to establish a presence in the country. Historians however describe the Dutch invasion of razil in the 17th century as one of the most damaging, imposing and far-reaching occupations of the country. This was mainly due to the well-organized and well-planned nature of the Dutch intrusion.
The Dutch invasion was an attempt not merely at establishing some fortuitous harbors for trade but was colonization in the true sense of the term. One of the obvious reasons was export of natural resources such as sugar.
The Dutch occupation of razil presents a number of pertinent and important questions that will form the fulcrum of the discussion in this paper. These are - the reasons for the…...
mlaBibliography
Alden, Dauril, ed. Colonial Roots of Modern Brazil: Papers of the Newberry Library Conference. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973.
Alden, Dauril and Warren Dean, eds. Essays concerning the Socioeconomic History of Brazil and Portuguese India. Gainesville, FL: University Presses of Florida, 1977.
Azevedo, Fernando de. Brazilian Culture: An Introduction to the Study of Culture in Brazil. Translated by Crawford, William Rex. New York: Macmillan, 1950.
Barbour, Violet. Capitalism in Amsterdam in the Seventeenth Century. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1950.
Not only was this theme fully explored within the historical context, but thoroughly analyzed within Europe as well. The teachings of such notable thinker as Sigmund Freud points to this direction of development. He concluded that there modernism within Europe had become characterized by the disorder of the mind. More precisely, there was a lack of any fixed system of reference for living and thinking. Europe, which had formerly been the center of intellectual development and revolutionary thinking now suffered under the burden of a weak political infrastructure. As a result, many of their greatest talents and knowledge now flowed away from Europe to other developing nations such as the United States.
The Age of Anxiety was coined not by historian but by Europeans of the age themselves. They reflected upon the disturbing trends that were occurring within European nation-states. It gave rise to radical social, political and scientific ideas…...
Alexander Pope and Jonathan Swift are two of the greatest satirists in literature because they capture elements of truth that force us to look at ourselves as a society. hile both authors reflect on political and economic conditions of the eighteenth century, their work is timeless because their topics ultimately return to humanity. Their achievements lie in the fact that they depict man in circumstances that are both thought provoking and amusing. Pope's "The Rape of the Lock" and "The Dunciad," along with Swift's "A Modest Proposal" and Gulliver's Travels demonstrate how satire takes its best form when its target is human nature.
The satirist is quite lucky in that he has many varieties of subjects when it comes to human nature M.H. Abrams observes that in most instances the satirist considers "prevalent evils and generally observable human types, not with particular individuals" (Abrams 2211). This is certainly true with Alexander…...
mlaWorks Cited
Abrams, M.H. "Alexander Pope." The Norton Anthology of English Literature W.W. Norton and Company. pp. 2209-14.
Pope, Alexander. "The Rape of the Lock." The Norton Anthology of English Literature W.W. Norton and Company. pp. 2233-52.
The Dunciad." The Norton Anthology of English Literature W.W. Norton and Company. pp. 2291-6.
Ross, John. Gulliver's Travels. Introduction. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1948.
There is no understating the importance that the Church and the development of Christianity and alternative churches have in the history of the world and the creation of modern culture. Christianity and the Church were a driving factor behind the colonial development of the world, which required incorporating foreign aspects into worship, and led to the creation of the modern worship experience.
It is important to look at how the Age of Discovery, when the Catholic Church expanded around the globe by establishing missions in conquered or colonized countries with indigenous populations of people who....
The Crucible: A Literary Exploration of Power, Hysteria, and the Perils of Accusation
Introduction
Arthur Miller's "The Crucible" is a timeless masterpiece that examines the destructive consequences of fear, paranoia, and mass hysteria. Set during the Salem witch trials of the 17th century, the play offers a cautionary tale about the dangers of unchecked power and the ease with which individuals can be manipulated into becoming both victims and perpetrators of injustice. This essay will explore various topics pertaining to "The Crucible," delving into the complex themes of power, hysteria, and the perils of accusation that are at the heart of the....
1. The life and legacy of Priscilla Mullins: A Pilgrim Woman
2. Priscilla Mullins and the Mayflower journey: A woman's perspective
3. The romantic relationship between Priscilla Mullins and John Alden
4. Priscilla Mullins: A strong and independent woman in early American history
5. The role of women like Priscilla Mullins in shaping the Plymouth Colony
6. Priscilla Mullins: A forgotten heroine of the Mayflower voyage
7. Priscilla Mullins and the challenges faced by women in the 17th century
8. The impact of Priscilla Mullins on the Plymouth community and American history
9. Priscilla Mullins: A symbol of resilience and perseverance in the face of adversity
10. The cultural....
Fear: The Driving Force Behind the Salem Witch Trials
The Salem Witch Trials, a dark chapter in American history, were a terrifying time marked by mass hysteria, false accusations, and unjust executions. Fear played a pivotal role in fueling the relentless pursuit of suspected witches, shaping the course of one of the most infamous events in American history.
Fear of the Unknown
In the 17th century, life was uncertain. People constantly faced threats from disease, famine, and natural disasters, fostering a deep-seated fear of the unknown. The Puritan community of Salem was particularly vulnerable to such fears, as they believed in the existence....
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