Rodney L. Taylor, 'The Religious Character of the Confucian Traditions'• Confucianism calls into question the definition of religion.

• Confucianism is commonly treated differently from other religious traditions, because it is more about social harmony, ethics, and comportment than about theology.

• All religions address ethics, morality, and social codes, and so does Confucianism. Then why is Confucianism not called a religion?

• The main reason is that Confucianism "lacks a concept of the transcendent," (p. 80)

• Is a concept of the transcendent a necessary part of the definition of a religion? No.

• It is a "western" assumption that a religion is defined by an overt reference to the transcendent.

• Buddhism and Taoism lack formal concepts of deities like those in Hinduism, Islam, and Christianity but are nevertheless relatively indisputably considered religious traditions.

• Moreover, Confucian writings are not typically referred to as "scripture," even though they have been utilized as one would utilize other sacred texts (p. 81).

• Confucianism's founder is not ascribed any divinity or ability to perform miracles.

• The author makes two main assertions: (1) that Confucianism is poorly understood, and (2) the definition of "religion" is too narrowly focused on issues like theism.

• Confucianism can and should be considered a religion in spite of its divergence from other traditions.

• Confucianism has no express concept of Absolute, but this does not mean there is no spiritual dimension to the tradition.

Confucianism has:

• Beliefs

• Practices and Rituals

• Institutional History

• Community

Religiosity is only one aspect of any tradition, including other religions, all of which have the above features.

Religion vs. Philosophy

• Belief in God is typically listed as a prerequisite for a religion, which is why Confucianism is commonly excluded from the religion category.

• However, many branches of philosophy like metaphysics address belief in God, and argue either for or against the existence of God. These philosophical traditions are not religious in nature even thought they deal with the Absolute.

• Therefore, belief in the Absolute is not a sufficient criteria for determining whether a tradition is a religion or not.

• The author also claims that belief in the Absolute is not a necessary criteria for determining whether a tradition is religion or not.

• The difference between philosophical approaches to God/Absolute and religious ones is with a religion, the individual or community develops a personal relationship with the Absolute.

• In Confucianism, the term ching refers to a religious response or devotion that is deeply personal in nature.

• That personal relationship may have at its goal "ultimate transformation," a goal such as enlightenment or salvation (p. 84)

• Ching and other aspects of Confucianism like ritual (li) aim for the ultimate transformation of the self and society

• The achievement of "sagehood" is also a transformative spiritual goal in the Confucian tradition.

• Religion must identify not only the goal (salvation/enlightenment) but also the means to achieving that goal (faith in Jesus/Eightfold Path)

• In the case of Confucianism, the goal is harmony or order, and the means include obedience to social order, law, and ritual.

Primacy of Religion Argument

• Religion is "never secondary" because it permeates all aspects of life (p. 85)

• Therefore, if any one religious element is present in a tradition, then that tradition must be classified as religious.

Ritual

• Ritual is central to Confucianism

• Ritual has deep meaning in the Confucian tradition because it reflects the order and structure of the universe.

• The performance of ritual is the means by which the individual attains the end goal of maintaining universal order, structure, and hierarchy.

• Not all ritual...

However, the meaning or intent underlying the performance of the ritual can qualify it as having a religious character and goal.
• In Confucianism, ritual is undertaken for religious purposes (to uphold cosmic order).

• There is also an attitude of ching, or "seriousness and reverence" accompanying ritual that reveals the religious character of Confucian practice (p. 87).

• However much ritual is a dimension of Confucianism, more is needed to clearly define Confucianism as religion. That "more" is the Confucian concept of the Absolute.

Confucianism and the Absolute

• In Confucianism, the Absolute is T'ien, or heaven. Alternatively the term is T'ien-li, Principle of Heaven.

• T'ien is central to Confucianism.

• The meaning of T'ien may have changed over centuries, but its primacy has not changed.

• Confucius the philosopher is regarded as "transmitting" knowledge, similar to the role a prophet would play.

• By focusing on T'ien, Confucius rejects or breaks from previous religious doctrine to present a humanistic religious perspective. T'ien is a principle, but it is not an "authority," (p. 88).

• The concept of T'ien is itself regarded as liberating and transformative for humanity, and thus has a spiritual underpinning as well as an obviously transcendent quality.

• T'ien is incorrectly presented as being only about social relations and law and not about transcendence. In fact, T'ien is the "inner structure of the universe, both microcosm and macrocosm. It is both the beginning point and the end point. As such it is an Absolute," (p. 89).

• It does not matter whether T'ien is transcendent or immanent, because either way, it is Absolute. Animism is an immanent tradition and is also religious.

Sagehood as a Religious Goal

• In addition to T'ien providing proof for Confucianism's religious foundations, the Confucian tradition emphasizes a distinctly religious goal: the pursuit of sagehood.

• Human beings can move toward T'ien in a process of spiritual transformation.

• As in Buddhism, the process is described as working towards becoming an ideal human being, which in Confucian tradition is called Sheng, or Sage.

• Being a Sage is not just a scholar who intellectually comprehends a body of teachings. Rather, being a Sage entails Enlightenment.

• The term Sheng is related to the process of "passing through" or "penetrating" as in penetrating a veil to gain true understanding, truth, and wisdom.

• Also, the term Sheng is related to "ear," or "hearing," making it so that the Sage is one who hears the truth.

• The term Sheng is also related to "manifestation" or "disclosure" of knowledge.

• Taking into account all the etymological elements of the Sage (passing through, hearing, and disclosing), the Sage is like a prophet or a bodhisattva.

• The Sage perceives the Way of Heaven, and transmits that understanding with the goal of improving humanity.

• There is a goal (Absolute/Heaven) and the means by which to achieve that goal, revealing the pursuit of personal transformation that characterizes all religious traditions.

Religious Texts in Confucianism

• The literary records or texts are known as ching, or "classics," a term that is linguistically related to the "warp" in weaving, which provides the continuity to the entire fabric.

• As such, a text deemed ching "provides continuity across time and space," (p. 91).

• Ching is translated commonly as "scripture" throughout the East Asian religious traditions.

• Confucian texts do not pretend to be "revealed," like the Bible, but that does not diminish their status as scripture because they are the "records of the sages," and Sages are essentially religious figures with prophet-like status (p. 91).

• The ching of Confucianism are records of what sages…