United States President, George Washington

¶ … United States president, George Washington (in his own words) pursued the "undeviating exercise of a just, steady, and prudent national policy." That quote (found in Robert Francis Jones' book George Washington: ordinary man, extraordinarily leader) was in the context of Washington preferring to stay out of wars between various European powers. He knew the young country he was leading was "gradually recovering from the distresses in which the war left us" (Jones, p. 138) and hence he concentrated on building the nation's internal strengths rather than engage in more conflict with European powers. And while Washington was definitely a strong man, which he showed on the battlefield during the Revolutionary War, his talents "in most fields" Jones writes (202) were "relatively commonplace."

What Washington did was to "raise those talents to the level of superlative accomplishment by self-discipline… [enabling] him in turn, to pay unremitting attention to details" (Jones, p. 202). In the book, George Washington and the origins of the American presidency, Mark J. Rozell et al., the authors point out that Washington "visited every section of the country… to become acquainted with his fellow citizens and to encourage" voters to back his administration (p. 6). By visiting all the sections of the country Washington "put a personal face on government, making it less threatening," Rozell writes (p. 6). He insisted "a man in public office…is accountable for the consequences of his measures to others" (Rozell, p. 7). As to his role as head of the executive branch, Washington used his veto power twice (Rozell, p. 11). One of his most notable accomplishments was working with Congress to establish the Judiciary Act of 1789, which established the federal court system. He also signed the "Indian Intercourse Acts" (regulating commerce between Indians and the U.S.) into law.

Thomas Jefferson's America was a place where there was more political factional fighting than Jefferson had hoped for, but to his benefit Republicanism was gaining power over the Federalists. In fact, according to the Miller Center Web site link called "American President An Online Resource," Jefferson was "hostile" to a strong central government and was wary of "judicial overreach" when it came to the Supreme Court.

The White House Web site reports that after the French Revolution, Jefferson "slashed Army and Navy expenditures, cut the budget, eliminated the tax on whiskey" which was very unpopular out West (www.whitehouse.gov). Jefferson's America was a place where there was a massive federal debt, and the president cut it "by a third." He also ordered the Navy to attack the Barbary pirates who had been attacking U.S. commerce in the Mediterranean, which was a bold use of military power. But his most lasting legacy in the minds of many historians was the purchase of the Louisiana Territory from the French in 1803 (www.whitehouse.gov). Meriwether Lewis -- who had been recruited by Thomas Jefferson to serve the president's personal secretary -- was chosen to lead the expedition west into the Louisiana Territory.

In time Jefferson would assign Lewis the task of putting together the men and materials for the expedition; in fact Lewis' relationship with the president became a close personal and professional association. Jefferson praised Lewis for "…sound understanding and a fidelity to truth" (Ambrose, 63). After two years of serving as the president's personal secretary, the president was totally sold on the idea of Lewis heading the expedition. Jefferson asked Lewis to fully explain to the Indians that the white explorers were interested in trade, not in seizing their lands (Ambrose 154). This showed that Jefferson used a steady hand and smart policies regarding the Western frontier and that he understood diplomacy with the Native Americans, whom he respected very much.

The Civil War: The fact is, most Americans probably believe that the only issue that precipitated the Civil War was slavery, and though slavery was at the center of the north-south feud, it was not alone as a spotlighted issue. The bottom line issue that tore the country apart was state's rights; in other words, did states have a right to go against the will of the national government? Could a Southern state continue to keep slaves in bondage because their cotton crops (hence, their economic power to survive) depended on slave labor? The answer of course is no, states may not make up their own laws that supercede federal legislation in matters of national interest that have been passed by Congress.

Author James McPherson writes that the defeat of the Confederate army was due partly to the "loss of the will to fight" after key losses. That loss of will occurred because "…Defeat causes demoralization and the loss of will; victory pumps up morale and the will to win." One interesting irony that needs to be emphasized is that on March 25, 1862, runaway slaves actually replaced Southern sailors (who had abandoned efforts to ram the ironclad USS Merrimack), according to an article in the New York Amsterdam News (referenced by McPherson). And the Merrimack was not sunk by the Union army; instead, after the rebel forces surrendered Norfolk, Virginia, Capt. Tattnall "ordered his ship blown up to prevent the U.S. from seizing her" (McPherson).