Chapter

Introduction

Student truancy is a growing problem in the United States. Over the last twenty years the truancy rates have grown nationwide with the highest rates in inner cities (Jacob & Lovett, 2017). Research indicates that student truancy leads to potential socially deviant behavior in adulthood (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017). Many students who are absent for prolonged periods are more likely to perform poorly academically, risking failure in classes and facing disciplinary action. Characteristics of some schools with high truancy rates are punitive truancy programs, lack of alternative study options for suspended students, and lack of counseling and tutoring (Bye, 2010). While high truancy is an issue, other schools maintain low truancy rates. Those schools give students the option for tutoring, allow distance learning for suspended students, and take on a mixture of punitive and non-punitive measures (Duarte & Hatch, 2014).

With a national ranking of 764 and a Florida ranking of 66, and called by a pseudonym for the purposes of anonymity: Charter Secondary School (CSS), CSS is considered one of the best high schools in the state regarding student attendance rates and overall school participation (Great Schools!, 2017). The school has low truancy among minority students, which is a notable and distinctive quality, making it an anomaly in the surrounding area (Great Schools!, 2017). First established in 2005, Charter Secondary School is a public charter school built on a suburban University Campus (Great Schools!, 2017). The current enrollment number stands at over 500 (Great Schools!, 2017). As an A rated school, it serves students from grades 6-12 (Charter Secondary School website, 2007).

In its early history, CSS was originally a middle school (Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores, 2007). The portable structures that comprised the school served as an alternative for students within the area (Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores, 2007). In 2005, the school gained a permanent structure thanks to the donations. The school has several full-time teachers for a semi-large student population reflecting a ratio of less than 20 students per teacher (19:1) (USNEWS, 2017). The percentage of economically disadvantaged students lies at 33% with minority enrollment of 83%. Although class attendance is high and the percentage of students who tested for AP exams at 81%, the percentage of students who pass the AP exams is 47%, or less than half. English and Mathematic proficiency levels lie at 70% and 68% respectively, which is above the district and nationwide average (USNEWS, 2017). With a College Readiness Index over 48, the school has room for improvement.

While students earn average test scores overall, students who attend CSS perform better than students at other schools in the same district (USNEWS, 2017). The district average for English proficiency is 50% and Mathematics proficiency at 37%. The district average for college readiness is at 44.7. This data represents assessments conducted at 113 schools for 113, 242 students (USNEWS, 2017). With a graduation rate of 98%, Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores provides a case worthy of further study.

Understanding the Reasons for Truancy

There are several reasons for truancy and they are often complex and varied. Research on truancy suggests that a negative school environment, student behavior, family economic status, and mental health problems are key contributors (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017) (Dembo, Wareham, Schmeidler, Briones-Robinson, & Winters, 2014). A negative school environment can cause problems for students wishing to learn. Schools in this region often have large classrooms, making it difficult for students to focus in class and receive attention necessary for understanding the curriculum (Losen, 2015). If for example, a student has questions or needs examples for a specific assignment in class, the teacher may not have the time or patience to deal with that student when he or she must deal with 29 other students all needing the same level of attention.

Many schools across the country have strict policies regarding disruptive student behavior that could lead to suspension or even expulsion. Several factors could cause disruptive behavior among students (Losen, 2015). One common reason is poverty. high levels of poverty have a negative effect on school behavior. This is attributed largely to the chronic and acute stress experienced by students living in poverty. The exposure is associated with externalizing behaviors that are disruptive in school settings (Hutcheson, 2014, p. 1). Students facing poverty may be part of an unstable household. They may endure problematic and abusive parents and lack basic resources. Students who exhibit poor behavior need opportunities to learn from their mistakes and receive the help and resources that could make a positive difference in their lives. Instead, they are often suspended or expelled and not given a chance to improve. High rates of suspension can lend to a higher rate of truancy. The bifactor structure reflected a general factor of Problems in Behavioral Engagement and two group factors: Problems in Social Engagement and Problems in Academic Engagement (Barghaus et al., 2016, p. 154). Researchers note students may not have academic problems, but instead present a-social or anti-social behaviors. They may not feel comfortable engaging with other students due to fear of judgement or an inability to properly socialize. Providing students with the tools to both engage socially and academically can allow for a higher percentage of academic-based positive outcomes. Student disinterest in academics may also play a key role in truancy (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017). They may not engage in school-based learning because suspensions and expulsions may impact their willingness to participate in school in a negative way. When students receive suspensions, they have no access to the schoolwork. When the suspension ends, depending on how long the time out of school was, they may have increased difficulty catching up with classwork (Reid, 2014) (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017).

Re-entry after suspension or expulsion sets up a pattern of no options to complete school work. Students cannot go to school or contact the teacher for assignments, placing them at a disadvantage (Reid, 2014). This is especially he case if they are not strong academically. To fall behind in schoolwork when students have experienced little success and low grades could further set them back and lead to failures in classes (Reid, 2014). These problems: negative school environment, student behavior, family economic status, mental health problem (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017) (Dembo, Wareham, Schmeidler, Briones-Robinson, & Winters, 2014) must be addressed for truancy programs to be effective. Suspension/expulsion and the associated re-entry problems could be further understood through theoretical framework.

By exploring incentive theory of motivation and research showing the connection between expulsion/suspension, interest, and truancy, the hope is to offer clarity in why truancy rates are high and what can be done to counteract it. Incentive theory of motivation and Family Systems Theory offer a robust theoretical framework from which to understand motive and environment. The complexity of truancy is something that cannot be answered through one avenue or reasoning. The scope of the problems associated with truancy is large. When students are suspended or expelled for their behavior, they may have a tougher time catching up in school and succeeding in their academic endeavors. This can lead to other problems down the line as students mature and become adults.

For the purpose of this study, the specific focus will be school-based policies and procedures that may mitigate or reduce truancy. The literature review will provide background of factors that lead to truancy, approaches used by school leaders to address truancy, and identify successful structures and strategies from an examination of existing research. After providing a proper synthesis of the reasons surrounding the problem, there will be greater understanding about how to approach the study. Therefore, it is important to state the scope of problem to define the focus and improve the quality of the study.

Statement of the Problem

Truancy rates in the United States are growing (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014). Whether a student is absent due to a suspension or because they willingly choose to be absent, the problem has remained worthy of research and possible intervention. The problem addressed by the study is: Educational leaders may have implemented policies and procedures in public charter schools, but documentation about school leaders beliefs about which are most effective and why is largely absent from the literature.

One policy associated with higher rates of truancy is known as zero-tolerance. Such a disciplinary policy enables harsher and stricter punishment of student behavior. Since the 1990s, implementation of zero tolerance policies in schools has led to increased use of school suspension and expulsion as disciplinary techniques for students with varying degrees of infractions (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014, p. 1110). If students receive punitive measures rather than a chance to receive help, this may provide some context surrounding continued truancy. Because continued truancy is part of the truancy dilemma as students feel the need to act out more related to their circumstances (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014).

For example, research suggests the experience of suspension or expulsion could lead to illegal behavior that is associated with a criminal record. Being suspended or expelled from school increased the likelihood of arrest in that same month and this effect was stronger among youth who did not have a history of behavior problems and when youth associated with less delinquent peers (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014, p. 1110). When schools expel and suspend students, school leaders add to the truancy rates of the school. This is not to say that expulsion and suspension are not necessary in a school setting. However, negative behaviors associated with truancy may increase when punitive measures outweigh non-punitive measures. The zero tolerance policies of schools have become the main cause for concern in these growing cases of suspension and expulsion because they are considered punitive measures (Schargel, 2014). Therefore, policies need to change to address this problem. Although truancy does not directly lead to crime, it often has a high correlation (Schargel, 2014). To do so, one must examine schools like Charter Secondary School to determine what steps to take to make a positive change.

Purpose of the Study

Effective school policies and procedures that improve attendance and reduce truancy may contain processes and options that provide support and variability like additional study hours and counseling. Without understanding such aspects, little help could be generated and implemented to help students in need and help them avoid high truancy rates. The purpose of the study is to understand school leaders perspectives about how policies and procedures reduce truancy and improve student attendance. By interviewing key staff in Charter Secondary School, a public charter school with low truancy levels, school leaders perspectives about effective policies and procedures can be gathered. These findings may provide a better understanding of what school leaders in other schools can do to improve truancy.

For example, attendance playing a large part in performing well academically. Research about truancy reduction suggests students with more attendance options may be able to overcome difficulties that contribute to truancy (Reid, 2014) (Schargel, 2014). Effective school policies that improve attendance may contain processes and options that provide a structure for truancy assistance. Without understanding such aspects, little help could be generated and implemented to help students in need and help them avoid high truancy rates.

The topic of school leaders perspectives on student attendance and retention will be explored by way of interviews at a school with high levels of attendance. Charter Secondary School has better attendance and better academic performance compared to all the other schools in the district (on average). Furthermore, most of the students are minority or non-white. This school is one starting point for investigation into effective school policies. Follow up studies in the literature review and examination of their policies in the interview section should provide a measure of effectiveness needed to understand better what strategies can improve attendance. It can also show how other schools handle things like minority majority and location of school like an urban, rural, or suburban setting.

Research Questions

Research questions point to the direction of the study. These questions below offer potential avenues of research and examination regarding truancy rates for CSS and student truancy in general.

How do school leaders at a diverse, urban secondary charter school describe the factors that contribute to a high attendance rate and a low truncy rate?

1. How do school leaders characterize the policies and procedures intended to improve? Sustain? Strong attendance rates?

2. What is the role of families and caregivers in implementing? Sustaining? High levels of attendance?

3. What theoretical framework serves as the foundation for policies at CSS?

The study is qualitative and focuses on the use of interviews to collect leaders perspectives on the topic of attendance and truancy. The interview has today become one of the most widespread knowledge-producing practices across the human and social sciences in general and in critical psychology more specifically (Brinkmann, 2014, p. 1008). Interviews can range from formal interviews to informal interviews. They can be done face-to-face, over the phone, or over the internet. Formal interviews have a structure to them where the researcher asks a question and the participant answers. However, in informal interviews, there can be discussion and the interviewer can use follow up questions in more conversational approach (Brinkmann, 2014). All qualitative interviews have some structure to them. Most qualitative interviews, however, are semi-structured. In a semi-structured interview, the researcher provides some structure based on her research interests and interview guide but works flexibly with the guide and allows room for the respondents more spontaneous descriptions and narratives (Brinkmann, 2014, p. 1008).

There is a need to understand from the Charter Secondary School staff or school leaders perspectives what policies and procedures are in place, what improvements and changes have been made to improve attendance, and what kind of school environment such policies promote. These findings can inform school leaders and others striving to reduce truancy. Findings will address school leaders beliefs about what is being done to achieve positive outcomes for the student population. Similar studies using interviews have gathered a significant amount of insightful information that addresses important questions.

Using fixed effects regressions and controlling for truancy peer group effects, we observe that truancy (measured as both a discrete dummy variable and a continuous count measure) positively correlates to early school leaving. A truant has a 3.4 percentage points higher risk of leaving school without a qualification (De Witte & Csillag, 2012, p. 549).

The policies surrounding truancy programs and how academic staff react allow for themes discovered through the interview process to then be compared to themes found in the literature review to see if there is a universal theme or concept being applied that leads to successful academic performance by students and good attendance records. It is important to allow students and staffers to give their opinions as well as enable discussion of what caused the positive or negative opinion. This will allow for easier analysis of responses.

Conceptual framework

I will not change this. This is the conceptual framework and it is covered in literature review. This is an introduction to it.

The idea that truancy is a complex problem allows for focus on the various narratives incorporated in attempts at understanding and resolving the problem. So many different avenues point to potential solutions, however, experience denotes negative or positive outcomes. Therefore, the leaders vision of the selected school and of successful truancy programs, will allow for a scope of what may be valuable towards reduction of student truancy rates. Within the conceptual framework lies the theoretical framework, incentive and motivation and family systems theory.

An important theory that will be explored in this study is the incentive theory of motivation. people are pulled towards behaviors that offer positive incentives and pushed away from behaviors associated with negative incentives. The incentive theory suggests that people are motivated to do things because of external rewards (Rehman & Haider, 2013, p. 141). If students are incentivized to attend class by receiving a reward, this may be a crucial part missing in schools with high truancy rates and may explain the downward spiral of some students when they are punished severely for being absent. This is an introduction. I will not add counter-examples as this will be done in chapter 2.

Family systems theory is a systems-level theory that allows exploration of a persons life through the context of the family and understanding the individuals family as an emotional unit contributing to the emotional wellbeing of the person (Breda, 2014). A theory introduced by Dr. Murray Bowen, the theory posts families exist as interdependent and interconnected individuals that cannot be understood in isolation from the system (Breda, 2014). In the case of truancy, if a student is performing poorly in school and is truant, this absence could be due to family responsibilities at home such as working to provide for the family, childcare responsibilities, or taking care of an ill parent. Family systems theory allows for identification of potential connections within the family that could be causing stress for the student leading to truant behavior (Breda, 2014).

Assumptions

The main assumption that guides this study is that effective attendance policies and procedures are the cornerstone for school leaders striving to reduce truancy rates. Other assumptions include the notion that higher rates of truancy lead to poorer academic performance. When students fail to attend class voluntarily, they put themselves at greater risk of performing poorly in school. Poor academic performance may reflect their inability to keep up in school and lack of motivation to complete assignments (Rollnick, 2016). They may be unwilling to attend school due to mental health problems, an unstable home life, or physical health conditions. Another assumption is that students living in poverty and minority students may have a more difficult time managing school due to a turbulent home life. Some research addresses the prevalence of school-based institutionalized racism which may influence students willingness to attend school (Rollnick, 2016). Although this is not a topic that will be covered in-depth in this paper, it is important to recognize the relationship to truancy of lack of resources, family-based problems, and being a minority member of the larger society.

Limitations

The study will be limited to one public charter school that will serve as the case to explore leaders perceptions of how their school maintains a low truancy rate. Another limitation is the number of people to interview for the study. Interviews will be conducted with representatives of administration and staff. The findings will not be generalizable to all schools, although the findings may inform leaders at other, similar schools. The literature review will only examine how American schools handle truancy and polices that either decrease or increase truancy rates. No other limitations are noted.

Scope of the Study

The study is qualitative and will use interviews with school staff to collectdata. Interview transcripts will be analyzed to identify underlying themes from respondents of the Charter Secondary School. By asking questions of school leaders and parent leaders, the researcher will develop greater understanding about what effective policies are in place that allow for better attendance rates than other schools in the district. Interestingly, the school also fares better regarding academic scores and has a high graduation rate. If location plays a part (it is in a suburban area), this should be explored via the interview questions to gain a better understanding of all aspects of effective policy within the school.

The literature review provides a foundation, the interviews provide the data. Aside from the qualitative interviews, the literature review will serve as a comparative guide to not only base some of the questions, but also compare the data garnered from the interviews. If other successful schools have similar policies in place, this could serve as a potential standard that can applied nationally to help decrease truancy in all schools throughout the country. The literature review will also serve to provide examples of policies in school with high truancy rates to see what should not be done. The results will also be discussed within the context of potential modification that can be made to help improve attendance rates and academic success of students even further.

Ultimately, it is important to acknowledge what Charter Secondary School has to offer and see whether that can serve as a gauge for other schools in the district, any maybe, in the country. Although the qualitative study is small, only including six students and four staff members from the school, it may provide the kind of insight that cannot be gathered elsewhere.

Significance

The study can be an important step in learning what is working for a school staff seeking to reduce truancy among students. Furthermore, findings may lead this school and others like it to adopt and implement effective programs and policies (Zyromski & Mariani, 2016). Public school leaders across the United States need to have the knowledge to improve their students academic progress and attendance. First, however, they need to see the information that proves certain policy implementations work and are worth the time, money, and effort. Like evidence-based practice in nursing, staff need to see evidence of policies that have already been enabled and implemented that have led to the success of students and the improved rates of attendance (Zyromski & Mariani, 2016).

While it helps seeing the statistics of a successful school like Charter Secondary School, it is even more significant if schools see the steps leaders took to reach that level of success. That collected information can be compared to other schools to identify what core principles and actions have been used to achieve such positive results. Growth and positive outcomes can only come from tested and approved practices.

Researchers need to continue their pursuit of finding and documenting policies and procedures that work and offer guidelines and direction for school staffs that seek to improve attendance and reduce truancy (Zyromski & Mariani, 2016). The growing problem of truancy in the United States requires a thoughtful and considerate assessment of those schools that have reduced truancy. These factors that lead to truancy will remain prevalent. School leaders cant rectify many of those factors, but they can take actions at their sites. Action cannot be taken unless there is sound research and evidence behind it (Zyromski & Mariani, 2016).

Lastly, studies like the one here offers an anchor point to investigate other aspects of school life, school environment, and student behavioral problems. If students have problems due to struggles with sexuality, gender identity, or even political affiliation, their experiences matter regarding understanding of truancy-related behaviors. These social dynamics could also be investigated in future studies. The results could then be used to spearhead changes in policies soon, leading to continue progression towards a safe and positive school environment.

Definition of Terms

The terms utilized in this study are detailed below.

Truancy When a student stays away from school without a sufficient reason; can be also labeled as absenteeism. Days suspended may be included in truancy rates.

Charter School (in the United States) a publicly funded independent school established by community groups, parents, or teachers under the terms of a charter with national/local authority.

Expulsion Meaning permanent withdrawing/exclusion, when a student is banned or removed from a school system/university due to consistent violations of an institution's rules. However, it can also be for a single offense of fitting harshness in extreme cases.

Suspension Regarding schools, suspension (a.k.a. temporary exclusion) is an obligatory leave given to a student as a method of penalty that can last anywhere from a single day to as long as several weeks, where a student cannot attend school or step foot inside the school (Kaufman & Kaufman, 2013)

The definitions were fine before. I will not be adding more.

Conclusion

In conclusion, truancy rates are a growing problem in United States schools. Charter Secondary School is one school that aimed to reduce truancy rates and has done so according to recent statistics. By exploring Charter Secondary Schools school policies and procedures that increase or decrease truancy rates in Florida, the researcher hopes to understand school leaders perspectives on how their approaches to school discipline has improved attendance.

The next section is a literature review. The literature review will focus on causes of truancy, important policies already in place in other schools to improve attendance, and how these policies could be similar or different to Charter Secondary School The recent literature documents the significance of truancy and how it connects school measures with student behavioral outcomes. Some schools take punitive measures towards truancy, others take non-punitive measures, and still more use a mixture of both. Why are such measures adopted? The aim of the study is to understand policy measures, whether and how they are successful, and the many factors that lead to truancy. There are severalfactors that can be at play from family situations, community, environment, mental health, and poverty. The literature review will address these topics. With so many schools throughout the country experiencing high truancy rates, what does Charter Secondary School do that enables high attendance among its student population? What policies has the school adopted to support a positive environment that motivates students to attend school and learn?

Chapter 2

Literature Review

Roadmap: This literature review will focus on several key topics because many reasons contribute to truancy. These are: addressing school truancy, school-based programs, punitive/non-punitive truancy programs, student and family characteristics, parental engagement, tackling the school truancy problem, types of programs like school-based programs, problems with current truancy programs, characteristics of successful truancy programs, and theoretical framework: Incentive Theory of Motivation and Family Systems Theory. The hope is to illuminate the way towards understanding the problem of school truancy and ways to reduce it.

Introduction: Addressing School Truancy

Student truancy has become a major issue schools try to tackle (Rollnick, 2016). Therefore, to improve truancy the need arises to research and cultivate worthwhile strategies to reduce negative behaviors that lead to truancy. However, there is also a need to understand why students are truant in the first place. Poverty and negative school environment are issues that have raised concern for the likelihood of truancy in students (Reid, 2014). This section hopes to illuminate the issue of student truancy. It becomes difficult to identify the costs of benefits of various measures. Those that fall into the punitive discipline is necessary because traditionalist views believe adherence to rules leads to positive outcomes (Rollnick, 2016). Those in the camp of nonpunitive discipline desire to demonstrate how giving students options can lead to better results not just in truancy rates, but the personal growth of the student (Rollnick, 2016). With all the strategies and methods available, it can be difficult for school leads to determine what mixture of punitive and nonpunitive discipline will work. The desire is to show the success of programs and/or schools that have enabled a reduction in truancy rates as well as policies in effect that increase truancy rates to demonstrate how to improve student truancy.

School-based Programs

Aside from creating a stronger connection to community, another way schools can and have helped decrease truancy rates is through truancy reporting. Truancy reporting allows students to be assessed to see if they are high-risk (De Witte & Csillag, 2012). Because truancy can have a profoundly negative effect on students in the long term, schools have begun becoming more stringent on truancy reporting. A truant has a 3.4 percentage points higher risk of leaving school without a qualification (De Witte & Csillag, 2012, p. 549). Because truancy reporting allows for better assessment of at-risk youth, it can provide a means of identifying potential problems with students early on (De Witte & Csillag, 2012). This makes truancy reporting a preventative measure. Such a preventative measure appears to have positive effects on students at risk. . The idea is straightforward: if students are better monitored with respect to truancy, schools can identify more easily students at risk. The results indicate that improved truancy reporting significantly reduces school dropout by 5 percentage points (De Witte & Csillag, 2012, p. 549).

To jumpstart the process of helping students, schools must figure out ways to help students connect to their community. A preventative measure used to help identify at-risk youth, can have interventions that lead to positive educational outcomes (De Witte & Csillag, 2012). Schools like the one used for this study and those like it, already have in place a robust truancy reporting protocol. The rules within this protocol show that students cannot be absent more than a few days or the school will be involved and will contact the students household (De Witte & Csillag, 2012).

More research should be dedicated to how preventative measures can expand to include other ways to assess for at-risk behavior. This can include lateness for class, missed homework assignments, and so forth (Reid, 2017). If this can be done, this may further allow for a greater assessment of potential truancy problems in the future. Applying research to practice is popular in healthcare, perhaps it can also become popular in education as more information comes out on hot button topics like student truancy (Reid, 2017).

Punitive

Punitive measures for truancy can be seen through the introduction of third-party policing in schools. Third-party policing is an approach to crime prevention and control involving the police partnering with organizations or individuals to prevent or reduce crime problems (Nitschke, Mazerolle, & Bennett, 2014, p. 5211). Relying on available criminal, regulatory, or civil laws and rules (legal levers) that allow third parties to take accountability, partially, for control of crime, it creates an environment where apprehension of problem students is feasible (Nitschke, Mazerolle, & Bennett, 2014). This may help schools deal with the growing delinquency in students but may also make it easier for students to become part of the criminal justice system at an early age.

Punitive measures can also be costlier (Nitschke, Mazerolle, & Bennett, 2014). Punitive measures like expulsion or suspension can further increase the likelihood of students being truant and performing poorly academically (Shelton, 2014). Students must be guided towards a positive outcome and that means reducing the belief that punitive measures will keep students from being truant. Although short-term results may indicate reduction, the long-term effects could be more negative and long-lasting (Shelton, 2014). Shelton mentioned students who face punitive measures may have a higher chance of committing crimes versus those who faced non-punitive measures.

While some research suggests police-intervention regarding truancy can help students in that parents are more aware of what happens to them, there are still many factors to consider in relation to efficacy. For…

Chapter

Introduction

Student truancy is a growing problem in the United States. Over the last twenty years the truancy rates have grown nationwide with the highest rates in inner cities (Jacob & Lovett, 2017). Research indicates that student truancy leads to potential socially deviant behavior in adulthood (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017). Many students who are absent for prolonged periods are more likely to perform poorly academically, risking failure in classes and facing disciplinary action. Characteristics of some schools with high truancy rates are punitive truancy programs, lack of alternative study options for suspended students, and lack of counseling and tutoring (Bye, 2010). While high truancy is an issue, other schools maintain low truancy rates. Those schools give students the option for tutoring, allow distance learning for suspended students, and take ona mixture of punitive and non-punitive measures (Duarte & Hatch, 2014).

With a national ranking of 764 and a Florida ranking of 66, and called by a pseudonym for the purposes of anonymity: Charter Secondary School (CSS), CSS is considered one of the best high schools in the state regarding student attendance rates and overall school participation (Great Schools!, 2017). The school has low truancy among minority students, which is a notable and distinctive quality, making it an anomaly in the surrounding area (Great Schools!, 2017). First established in 2005, Charter Secondary School is a public charter school built on a suburban University Campus (Great Schools!, 2017). The current enrollment number stands at over 500 (Great Schools!, 2017). As an A rated school, it serves students from grades 6-12 (Charter Secondary School website, 2007).

In its early history, CSS was originally a middle school (Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores, 2007). The portable structures that comprised the school served as an alternative for students within the area (Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores, 2007). In 2005, the school gained a permanent structure thanks to the donations. The school has several full-time teachers for a semi-large student population reflecting a ratio of less than 20 students per teacher (19:1) (USNEWS, 2017). The percentage of economically disadvantaged students lies at 33% with minority enrollment of 83%. Although class attendance is high and the percentage of students who tested for AP exams at 81%, the percentage of students who pass the AP exams is 47%, or less than half. English and Mathematic proficiency levels lie at 70% and 68% respectively, which is above the district and nationwide average (USNEWS, 2017). With a College Readiness Index over 48, the school has room for improvement.

While students earn average test scores overall, students who attend CSS perform better than students at other schools in the same district (USNEWS, 2017). The district average for English proficiency is 50% and Mathematics proficiency at 37%. The district average for college readiness is at 44.7. This data represents assessments conducted at 113 schools for 113, 242 students (USNEWS, 2017). With a graduation rate of 98%, Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores provides a case worthy of further study.

Understanding the Reasons for Truancy

There are several reasons for truancy and they are often complex and varied. Research on truancy suggests that a negative school environment, student behavior, family economic status, and mental health problems are key contributors (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017) (Dembo, Wareham, Schmeidler, Briones-Robinson, & Winters, 2014). A negative school environment can cause problems for students wishing to learn. Schools in this region often have large classrooms, making it difficult for students to focus in class and receive attention necessary for understanding the curriculum (Losen, 2015). If for example, a student has questions or needs examples for a specific assignment in class, the teacher may not have the time or patience to deal with that student when he or she must deal with 29 other students all needing the same level of attention.

Many schools across the country have strict policies regarding disruptive student behavior that could lead to suspension or even expulsion. Several factors could cause disruptive behavior among students (Losen, 2015). One common reason is poverty. high levels of poverty have a negative effect on school behavior. This is attributed largely to the chronic and acute stress experienced by students living in poverty. The exposure is associated with externalizing behaviors that are disruptive in school settings (Hutcheson, 2014, p. 1). Students facing poverty may be part of an unstable household. They may endure problematic and abusive parents and lack basic resources. Students who exhibit poor behavior need opportunities to learn from their mistakes and receive the help and resources that could make a positive difference in their lives. Instead, they are often suspended or expelled and not given a chance to improve. High rates of suspension can lend to a higher rate of truancy. The bifactor structure reflected a general factor of Problems in Behavioral Engagement and two group factors: Problems in Social Engagement and Problems in Academic Engagement (Barghaus et al., 2016, p. 154). Researchers note students may not have academic problems, but instead present a-social or anti-social behaviors. They may not feel comfortable engaging with other students due to fear of judgement or an inability to properly socialize. Providing students with the tools to both engage socially and academically can allow for a higher percentage of academic-based positive outcomes. Student disinterest in academics may also play a key role in truancy (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017). They may not engage in school-based learning because suspensions and expulsions may impact their willingness to participate in school in a negative way. When students receive suspensions, they have no access to the schoolwork. When the suspension ends, depending on how long the time out of school was, they may have increased difficulty catching up with classwork (Reid, 2014) (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017).

Re-entry after suspension or expulsion sets up a pattern of no options to complete school work. Students cannot go to school or contact the teacher for assignments, placing them at a disadvantage (Reid, 2014). This is especially the case if they are not strong academically. To fall behind in schoolwork when students have experienced little success and low grades could further set them back and lead to failures in classes (Reid, 2014). These problems: negative school environment, student behavior, family economic status, mental health problem (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017) (Dembo, Wareham, Schmeidler, Briones-Robinson, & Winters, 2014) must be addressed for truancy programs to be effective. Suspension/expulsion and the associated re-entry problems could be further understood through theoretical framework.

By exploring incentive theory of motivation and research showing the connection between expulsion/suspension, interest, and truancy, the hope is to offer clarity in why truancy rates are high and what can be done to counteract it. Incentive theory of motivation and Family Systems Theory offer a robust theoretical framework from which to understand motive and environment. The complexity of truancy is something that cannot be answered through one avenue or reasoning. The scope of the problems associated with truancy is large. When students are suspended or expelled for their behavior, they may have a tougher time catching up in school and succeeding in their academic endeavors. This can lead to other problems down the line as students mature and become adults.

For the purpose of this study, the specific focus will be school-based policies and procedures that may mitigate or reduce truancy. The literature review will provide background of factors that lead to truancy, approaches used by school leaders to address truancy, and identify successful structures and strategies from an examination of existing research. After providing a proper synthesis of the reasons surrounding the problem, there will be greater understanding about how to approach the study. Therefore, it is important to state the scope of problem to define the focus and improve the quality of the study.

Statement of the Problem

Truancy rates in the United States are growing (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014). Whether a student is absent due to a suspension or because they willingly choose to be absent, the problem has remained worthy of research and possible intervention. The problem addressed by the study is: Educational leaders may have implemented policies and procedures in public charter schools, but documentation about school leaders beliefs about which are most effective and why is largely absent from the literature.

One olicy associated with higher rates of truancy is known as zero-tolerance. Such a disciplinary policy enables harsher and stricter punishment of student behavior. Since the 1990s, implementation of zero tolerance policies in schools has led to increased use of school suspension and expulsion as disciplinary techniques for students with varying degrees of infractions (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014, p. 1110). If students receive punitive measures rather than a chance to receive help, this may provide some context surrounding continued truancy. Because continued truancy is part of the truancy dilemma as students feel the need to act out more related to their circumstances (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014).

For example, research suggests the experience of suspension or expulsion could lead to illegal behavior that is associated with a criminal record. Being suspended or expelled from school increased the likelihood of arrest in that same month and this effect was stronger among youth who did not have a history of behavior problems and when youth associated with less delinquent peers (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014, p. 1110). When schools expel and suspend students, school leaders add to the truancy rates of the school. This is not to say that expulsion and suspension are not necessary in a school setting. However, negative behaviors associated with truancy may increase when punitive measures outweigh non-punitive measures. The zero tolerance policies of schools have become the main cause for concern in these growing cases of suspension and expulsion because they are considered punitive measures (Schargel, 2014). Therefore, policies need to change to address this problem. Although truancy does not directly lead to crime, it often has a high correlation (Schargel, 2014). To do so, one must examine schools like Charter Secondary School to determine what steps to take to make a positive change.

Purpose of the Study

Effective school policies and procedures that improve attendance and reduce truancy may contain processes and options that provide support and variability like additional study hours and counseling. Without understanding such aspects, little help could be generated and implemented to help students in need and help them avoid high truancy rates. The purpose of the study is to understand school leaders perspectives about how policies and procedures reduce truancy and improve student attendance. By interviewing key staff in Charter Secondary School, a public charter school with low truancy levels, school leaders perspectives about effective policies and procedures can be gathered. These findings may provide a better understanding of what school leaders in other schools can do to improve truancy.

For example, attendance playing a large part in performing well academically. Research about truancy reduction suggests students with more attendance options may be able to overcome difficulties that contribute to truancy (Reid, 2014) (Schargel, 2014). Effective school policies that improve attendance may contain processes and options that provide a structure for truancy assistance. Without understanding such aspects, little help could be generated and implemented to help students in need and help them avoid high truancy rates.

The topic of school leaders perspectives on student attendance and retention will be explored by way of interviews at a school with high levels of attendance. Charter Secondary School has better attendance and better academic performance compared to all the other schools in the district (on average). Furthermore, most of the students are minority or non-white. This school is one starting point for investigation into effective school policies. Follow up studies in the literature review and examination of their policies in the interview section should provide a measure of effectiveness needed to understand better what strategies can improve attendance. It can also show how other schools handle things like minority majority and location of school like an urban, rural, or suburban setting.

Research Questions

Research questions point to the direction of the study. These questions below offer potential avenues of research and examination regarding truancy rates for CSS and student truancy in general.

How do school leaders at a diverse, urban secondary charter school describe the factors that contribute to a high attendance rate and a low truancy rate?

1. How do school leaders characterize the policies and procedures intended to improve? Sustain? Strong attendance rates?

2. What is the role of families and caregivers in implementing? Sustaining? High levels of attendance?

3. What theoretical framework serves as the foundation for policies at CSS?

The study is qualitative and focuses on the use of interviews to collect leaders perspectives on the topic of attendance and truancy. The interview has today become one of the most widespread knowledge-producing practices across the human and social sciences in general and in critical psychology more specifically (Brinkmann, 2014, p. 1008). Interviews can range from formal interviews to informal interviews. They can be done face-to-face, over the phone, or over the internet. Formal interviews have a structure to them where the researcher asks a question and the participant answers. However, in informal interviews, there can be discussion and the interviewer can use follow up questions in more conversational approach (Brinkmann, 2014). All qualitative interviews have some structure to them. Most qualitative interviews, however, are semi-structured. In a semi-structured interview, the researcher provides some structure based on her research interests and interview guide but works flexibly with the guide and allows room for the respondents more spontaneous descriptions and narratives (Brinkmann, 2014, p. 1008).

There is a need to understand from the Charter Secondary School staff or school leaders perspectives what policies and procedures are in place, what improvements and changes have been made to improve attendance, and what kind of school environment such policies promote. These findings can inform school leaders and others striving to reduce truancy. Findings will address school leaders beliefs about what is being done to achieve positive outcomes for the student population. Similar studies using interviews have gathered a significant amount of insightful information that addresses important questions.

Using fixed effects regressions and controlling for truancy peer group effects, we observe that truancy (measured as both a discrete dummy variable and a continuous count measure) positively correlates to early school leaving. A truant has a 3.4 percentage points higher risk of leaving school without a qualification (De Witte & Csillag, 2012, p. 549).

The policies surrounding truancy programs and how academic staff react allow for themes discovered through the interview process to then be compared to themes found in the literature review to see if there is a universal theme or concept being applied that leads to successful academic performance by students and good attendance records. It is important to allow students and staffers to give their opinions as well as enable discussion of what caused the positive or negative opinion. This will allow for easier analysis of responses.

Conceptual framework

I will not change this. This is the conceptual framework and it is covered in literature review. This is an introduction to it.

The idea that truancy is a complex problem allows for focus on the various narratives incorporated in attempts at understanding and resolving the problem. So many different avenues point to potential solutions, however,…

Chapter

Introduction

Student truancy is a growing problem in the United States. Over the last twenty years the truancy rates have grown nationwide with the highest rates in inner cities (Jacob & Lovett, 2017). Research indicate that student truancy leads to potential socially deviant behavior in adulthood (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017). Many students who are absent for prolonged periods are more likely to perform poorly academically, risking failure in classes and facing disciplinary action. Characteristics of some schools with high truancy rates are punitive truancy programs, lack of alternative study options for suspended students, and lack of counseling and tutoring (Bye, 2010). While high truancy is an issue, other schools maintain low truancy rates. Those schools give students the option for tutoring, allow distance learning for suspended students, and take on a mixture of punitive and non-punitive measures (Duarte & Hatch, 2014).

With a national ranking of 764 and a Florida ranking of 66, and called by a pseudonym for the purposes of anonymity: Charter Secondary School (CSS), CSS is considered one of the best high schools in the state regarding student attendance rates and overall school participation (Great Schools!, 2017). The school has low truancy among minority students, which is a notable and distinctive quality, making it an anomaly in the surrounding area (Great Schools!, 2017). First established in 2005, Charter Secondary School is a public charter school built on a suburban University Campus (Great Schools!, 2017). The current enrollment number stands at over 500 (Great Schools!, 2017). As an A rated school, it serves students from grades 6-12 (Charter Secondary School website, 2007).

In its early history, CSS was originally a middle school (Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores, 2007). The portable structures that comprised the school served as an alternative for students within the area (Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores, 2007). In 2005, the school gained a permanent structure thanks to the donations. The school has several full-time teachers for a semi-large student population reflecting a ratio of less than 20 students per teacher (19:1) (USNEWS, 2017). The percentage of economically disadvantaged students lies at 33% with minority enrollment of 83%. Although class attendance is high and the percentage of students who tested for AP exams at 81%, the percentage of students who pass the AP exams is 47%, or less than half. English and Mathematic proficiency levels lie at 70% and 68% respectively, which is above the district and nationwide average (USNEWS, 2017). With a College Readiness Index over 48, the school has room for improvement.

While students earn average test scores overall, students who attend CSS perform better than students at other schools in the same district (USNEWS, 2017). The district average for English proficiency is 50% and Mathematics proficiency at 37%. The district average for college readiness is at 44.7. This data represents assessments conducted at 113 schools for 113, 242 students (USNEWS, 2017). With a graduation rate of 98%, Charter Secondary School of Miami Shores provides a case worthy of further study.

Understanding the Reasons for Truancy

There are several reasons for truancy and they are often complex and varied. Research on truancy suggests that a negative school environment, student behavior, family economic status, and mental health problems are key contributors (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017) (Dembo, Wareham, Schmeidler, Briones-Robinson, & Winters, 2014). A negative school environment can cause problems for students wishing to learn. Schools in this region often have large classrooms, making it difficult for students to focus in class and receive attention necessary for understanding the curriculum (Losen, 2015). If for example, a student has questions or needs examples for a specific assignment in class, the teacher may not have the time or patience to deal with that student when he or she must deal with 29 other students all needing the same level of attention.

Many schools across the country have strict policies regarding disruptive student behavior that could lead to suspension or even expulsion. Several factors could cause disruptive behavior among students (Losen, 2015). One common reason is poverty. high levels of poverty have a negative effect on school behavior. This is attributed largely to the chronic and acute stress experienced by students living in poverty. The exposure is associated with externalizing behaviors that are disruptive in school settings (Hutcheson, 2014, p. 1). Students facing poverty may be part of an unstable household. They may endure problematic and abusive parents and lack basic resources. Students who exhibit poor behavior need opportunities to learn from their mistakes and receive the help and resources that could make a positive difference in their lives. Instead, they are often suspended or expelled and not given a chance to improve. High rates of suspension can lend to a higher rate of truancy. The bifactor structure reflected a general factor of Problems in Behavioral Engagement and two group factors: Problems in Social Engagement and Problems in Academic Engagement (Barghaus et al., 2016, p. 154). Researchers note students may not have academic problems, but instead present a-social or anti-social behaviors. They may not feel comfortable engaging with other students due to fear of judgement or an inability to properly socialize. Providing students with the tools to both engage socially and academically can allow for a higher percentage of academic-based positive outcomes. Student disinterest in academics may also play a key role in truancy (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017). They may not engage in school-based learning because suspensions and expulsions may impact their willingness to participate in school in a negative way. When students receive suspensions, they have no access to the schoolwork. When the suspension ends, depending on how long the time out of school was, they may have increased difficulty catching up with classwork (Reid, 2014) (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2.......l work. Students cannot go to school or contact the teacher for assignments, placing them at a disadvantage (Reid, 2014). This is especially the case if they are not strong academically. To fall behind in schoolwork when students have experienced little success and low grades could further set them back and lead to failures in classes (Reid, 2014). These problems: negative school environment, student behavior, family economic status, mental health problem (Dronkers, Veerman, & Pong, 2017) (Dembo, Wareham, Schmeidler, Briones-Robinson, & Winters, 2014) must be addressed for truancy programs to be effective. Suspension/expulsion and the associated re-entry problems could be further understood through theoretical framework.

By exploring incentive theory of motivation and research showing the connection between expulsion/suspension, interest, and truancy, the hope is to offer clarity in why truancy rates are high and what can be done to counteract it. Incentive theory of motivation and Family Systems Theory offer a robust theoretical framework from which to understand motive and environment. The complexity of truancy is something that cannot be answered through one avenue or reasoning. The scope of the problems associated with truancy is large. When students are suspended or expelled for their behavior, they may have a tougher time catching up in school and succeeding in their academic endeavors. This can lead to other problems down the line as students mature and become adults.

For the purpose of this study, the specific focus will be school-based policies and procedures that may mitigate or reduce truancy. The literature review will provide background of factors that lead to truancy, approaches used by school leaders to address truancy, and identify successful structures and strategies from an examination of existing research. After providing a proper synthesis of the reasons surrounding the problem, there will be greater understanding about how to approach the study. Therefore, it is important to state the scope of problem to define the focus and improve the uality of the study.

Statement of the Problem

Truancy rates in the United States are growing (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014). Whether a student is absent due to a suspension or because they willingly choose to be absent, the problem has remained worthy of research and possible intervention. The problem addressed by the study is: Educational leaders may have implemented policies and procedures in public charter schools, but documentation about school leaders beliefs about which are most effective and why is largely absent from the literature.

One policy associated with higher rates of truancy is known as zero-tolerance. Such a disciplinary policy enables harsher and stricter punishment of student behavior. Since the 1990s, implementation of zero tolerance policies in schools has led to increased use of school suspension and expulsion as disciplinary techniques for students with varying degrees of infractions (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014, p. 1110). If students receive punitive measures rather than a chance to receive help, this may provide some context surrounding continued truancy. Because continued truancy is part of the truancy dilemma as students feel the need to act out more related to their circumstances (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014).

For example, research suggests the experience of suspension or expulsion could lead to illegal behavior that is associated with a criminal record. Being suspended or expelled from school increased the likelihood of arrest in that same month and this effect was stronger among youth who did not have a history of behavior problems and when youth associated with less delinquent peers (Monahan, VanDerhei, Bechtold, & Cauffman, 2014, p. 1110). When schools expel and suspend students, school leaders add to the truancy rates of the school. This is not to say that expulsion and suspension are not necessary in a school setting. However, negative behaviors associated with truancy may increase when punitive measures outweigh non-punitive measures. The zero tolerance policies of schools have become the main cause for concern in these growing cases of suspension and expulsion because they are considered punitive measures (Schargel, 2014). Therefore, policies need to change to address this problem. Although truancy does not directly lead to crime, it often has a high correlation (Schargel, 2014). To do so, one must examine schools like Charter Secondary School to determine what steps to take to make a positive change.

Purpose of the Study

Effective school policies and procedures that improve attendance and reduce truancy may contain processes and options that provide support and variability like additional study hours and counseling. Without understanding such aspects, little help could be generated and implemented to help students in need and help them avoid high truancy rates. The purpose of the study is to understand school leaders perspectives about how policies and procedures reduce truancy and improve student attendance. By interviewing key staff in Charter Secondary School, a public charter school with low truancy levels, school leaders perspectives about effective policies and procedures can be gathered. These findings may provide a better understanding of what school leaders in other schools can do to improve truancy.

For example, attendance playing a large part in performing well academically. Research about truancy reduction suggests students with more attendance options may be able to overcome difficulties that contribute to truancy (Reid, 2014) (Schargel, 2014). Effective school policies that improve attendance may contain processes and options that provide a structure for truancy assistance. Without understanding such aspects, little help could be generated and implemented to help students in need and help them avoid high truancy rates.

The topic of school leaders perspectives on student attendance and retention will be explored by way of interviews at a school with high levels of attendance. Charter Secondary School has better attendance and better academic performance compared to all the other schools in the district (on average). Furthermore, most of the students are minority or non-white. This school is one starting point for investigation into effective school policies. Follow up studies in the literature review and examination of their policies in the interview section should provide a measure of effectiveness needed to understand better what strategies can improve attendance. It can also show how other schools handle things like minority majority and location of school like an urban, rural, or suburban setting.

Research Questions

Research questions point to the direction of the study. These questions below offer potential avenues of research and examination regarding truancy rates for CSS and student truancy in general.

How do school leaders at a diverse, urban secondary charter school describe the factors that contribute to a high attendance rate and a low truancy rate?

1. How do school leaders characterize the policies and procedures intended to improve? Sustain? Strong attendance rates?

2. What is the role of families and caregivers in implementing? Sustaining? High levels of attendance?

3. What theoretical framework serves as the foundation for policies at CSS?

The study is qualitative and focuses on the use of interviews to collect leaders perspectives on the topic of attendance and truancy. The interview has today become one of the most widespread knowledge-producing practices across the human and social sciences in general and in critical psychology more specifically (Brinkmann, 2014, p. 1008). Interviews can range from formal interviews to informal interviews. They can be done face-to-face, over the phone, or over the internet. Formal interviews have a structure to them where the researcher asks a question and the participant answers. However, in informal interviews, there can be discussion and the interviewer can use follow up questions in more conversational approach (Brinkmann, 2014). All qualitative interviews have some structure to them. Most qualitative interviews, however, are semi-structured. In a semi-structured interview, the researcher provides some structure based on her research interests and interview guide but works flexibly with the guide and allows room for the respondents more spontaneous descriptions and narratives (Brinkmann, 2014, p. 1008).

There is a need to understand from the Charter Secondary School staff or school leaders perspectives what policies and procedures are in place, what improvements and changes have been made to improve attendance, and what kind of school environment such policies promote. These findings can inform school leaders and others striving to reduce truancy. Findings will address school leaders beliefs about what is being done to achieve positive outcomes for the student population. Similar studies using interviews have gathered a significant amount of insightful information that addresses important questions.

Using fixed effects regressions and controlling for truancy peer group effects, we observe that truancy (measured as both a discrete dummy variable and a continuous count measure) positively correlates to early school leaving. A truant has a 3.4 percentage points higher risk of leaving school without a qualification (De Witte & Csillag, 2012, p. 549).

The policies surrounding truancy programs and how academic staff react allow for themes discovered through the interview process to then be compared to themes found in the literature review to see if there is a universal theme or concept being applied that leads to successful academic performance by students and good attendance records. It is important to allow students and staffers to give their opinions as well as enable discussion of what caused the positive or negative opinion. This will allow for easier analysis of responses.

Conceptual framework

I will not chane this. This is the conceptual framework and it is covered in literature review. This is an introduction to it.

The idea that truancy is a complex problem allows for focus on the various narratives incorporated in attempts at understanding and resolving the problem. So many different avenues point to potential solutions, however, experience denotes negative or positive outcomes. Therefore, the leaders vision of the selected school and of successful truancy programs, will allow for a scope of what may be valuable towards reduction of student truancy rates. Within the conceptual framework lies the theoretical framework, incentive and motivation and family systems theory.

An important theory that will be explored in this study is the incentive theory of motivation. people are pulled towards behaviors that offer positive incentives and pushed away from behaviors associated with negative incentives. The incentive theory suggests that people are motivated to do things because of external rewards (Rehman & Haider, 2013, p. 141). If students are incentivized to attend class by receiving a reward, this may be a crucial part missing in schools with high truancy rates and may explain the downward spiral of some students when they are punished severely for being absent. This is an introduction. I will not add counter-examples as this will be done in chapter 2.

Family systems theory is a systems-level theory that allows exploration of a persons life through the context of the family and understanding the individuals family as an emotional unit contributing to the emotional wellbeing of the person (Breda, 2014). A theory introduced by Dr. Murray Bowen, the theory posts families exist as interdependent and interconnected individuals that cannot be understood in isolation from the system (Breda, 2014). In the case of truancy, if a student is performing poorly in school and is truant, this absence could be due to family responsibilities at home such as working to provide for the family, childcare responsibilities, or taking care of an ill parent. Family systems theory allows for identification of potential connections within the family that could be causing stress for the student leading to truant beh