According to Cherry, "The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalized moral standards and ideals that we acquire from both parents and society -- our sense of right and wrong. The superego provides guidelines for making judgments" (2010, para. 3). Freud believed that the superego first starts to emerge during early childhood, typically at age 5 years or so (Cherry, 2010). The super ego is comprised of two parts as follows:
1. The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for good behaviors. These behaviors include those which are approved of by parental and other authority figures. Obeying these rules leads to feelings of pride, value and accomplishment.
2. The conscience includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents and society. These behaviors are often forbidden and lead to bad consequences, punishments or feelings of guilt and remorse (Cherry, 2010, para. 5).
In contrast to the id, which is present from birth and operates at the primal level, and from the ego that develops to help people make sense of the world around them, the superego coordinates all of the other components of personality to function in the real world. In this regard, Cherry notes that, "The superego acts to perfect and civilize our behavior. It works to suppress all unacceptable urges of the id and struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic standards rather that upon realistic principles. The superego is present in the conscious, preconscious and unconscious" (2010, para. 5). At the neurological level, the super-ego functions in two separate ways:
1. It disturbs and inhibits ego-syntonic behaviour, which is a priori in conformity with the requirements of reality, by equating this, as the result of faulty reality-testing, with actions which it has learned to criticize in the past and by dealing with it in the way it dealt with them.
2. Concomitantly, by means of self-punishment, it permits autoplastic, symbolic gratification of precisely those condemned wishes (Bergmann, 1976, p. 100).
This means that the super ego is capable of learning what works and what does not and the focus of therapeutic interventions would be to identify the former and use more of that in the person's day-to-day life. While Freud's id, ego and superego model provide some useful insights concerning the inner workings of the human psyche, the psychosocial development model can help understand how people develop over time and what critical milestones they must achieve to grow and mature in positive ways and these issues are discussed further below.
Erik Erikson's psychosocial development model
Erikson was clearly influenced by Freud's concepts of the id, ego and superego, but he departed from this model in favor of one that he believed more accurately represented how people respond to the external events in their lives and what therapists could do to help them in the process. For instance, according to Hoare, "Erikson was a second-stage psychoanalytic thinker, one who was trained in Freud's Vienna Institute but who quickly departed the rigidity of Freudian dogma. He then revolutionized both psychoanalytic and developmental thought" (2002, p. 3).
Erikson stage-model of psychosocial development underwent a number of changes and refinements over the years as he researched the concepts further, with the final version being shown in Table 1 below.
Table 1
Erikson's final version of psychosocial stages
Age
Conflict
Resolution or "virtue"
Culmination in old age
Infancy (0-1 year)
Basic trust vs. mistrust
Hope
Appreciation of interdependence and relatedness
Early childhood (1-3 years)
Autonomy vs. shame
Will
Acceptance of the cycle of life, from integration to disintegration
Play age (3-6 years)
Initiative vs. guilt
Purpose
Humor; empathy; resilience
School age (6-12 years)
Industry vs. Inferiority
Competence
Humility; acceptance of the course of one's life and unfulfilled hopes
Adolescence (12-19 years)
Identity vs. confusion
Fidelity
Sense of complexity of life, merging of sensory, logical and aesthetic perception
Early adulthood (20-25 years)
Intimacy vs. isolation
Love
Sense of the complexity of relationships, value of tenderness and loving freely
Adulthood (26-64 years)
Generativity vs. stagnation
Care
Caritas, caring for others, and agape, empathy and concern
Old age (65-death)
Integrity vs. despair
Wisdom
Existential identity, a sense of integrity strong enough to withstand physical disintegration
Source: Dewey, 2007
These well-known developmental stages have been the focus of a great deal of research over the years, and Erikson is certainly not without his detractors. Nevertheless, these developmental stages and their corresponding crises do provide a useful way of understanding how and why people respond to the challenges they experience during the life span. According to Coll and Hass (2006), although each of Erikson's life stages has some profound challenges that must be overcome to successfully move on to the next stage, perhaps the most turbulent developmental period for most people is adolescence, which these authors further differentiate into three discrete periods:
1. Early adolescence, ages 12-14 years;
2. Mid-adolescence, ages 15-17 years; and,
3. Late adolescence, ages 18-22 years.
These authorities emphasize that these age period distinctions are "particularly important to counselors...
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