Technology and social media: impacts and trends

Social Media and Technology

The entire sphere of human interaction has undergone large-scale transformation as a result of the rapidly changing technological environment and the emergence of the internet. Back in the day, social interactions were primarily based on hand-written letters and occasional telephone conversations. Thanks to technological progression, however, numerous online communication platforms have been developed, and what we have now is an internet revolution and a totally new and dynamic realm of human interaction and long-distance communication. Currently, 73% of America's adult population, and 93% of the teen population uses social media platforms to communicate with family members and friends. Today, Facebook is home to more than 700 million users who can conveniently communicate with each other at the touch of a button without having to grapple with the time and space limitations that back in the day forced people to choose their partners and friends from their immediate environment.

There is no question about the advantages of computer-mediated communications (CMC), but to psychologists, it is only about the disadvantages - by letting ourselves get so diffused in CMC, we are breeding antisocial tendencies and some kind of alienation from public life, and thereby throwing away the very social aspect of humanity initiated in the creation story. At the heart of this ideology is the concern that CMC may not yield the level of satisfaction needed for the maintenance of human relationships, and ought therefore not to be taken as a replacement for face-to-face interactions. Based on this background, this study seeks to identify the predictors of psychological satisfaction in CMC-based romantic relationships and determine techniques that could be used to increase the significance of these factors, and hence the level of relationship satisfaction.

Problem Statement

Researchers contend that more and more people are getting involved in CMC-based relationships, particularly romantic relationships (Perry, 2010; Anderson & Emmers-Sommer, 2006; Wrench & Punyanunt-Carter, 2007). As Anderson and Emmers-Sommer (2006) point out, "these individuals inhabit an interesting relational niche because they engage in relationships that are perceived by some scholars as either non-traditional or understudied" (p. 153). Towards this end, whilst we all appreciate the fact that communication is an essential component of human life and satisfaction a key determinant of the extent to which a relationship is likely to grow; we cannot blind ourselves to the fact that the atypical relational circumstances of CMC-based relationships make it difficult to achieve both. These are people who do not converse or interact physically, and are, given the understudied nature of their relational niche, likely to lack both information and social support networks that would help them define their relationships. In such cases, therefore, the relationship's success is likely to depend primarily on the level of commitment of both partners, and the quality of communication.

The researcher acknowledges that a lot of research has been done on interpersonal relationships as a whole, but there still are huge knowledge gaps in the area of online interpersonal relationships, perhaps because the concept is still quite new. In fact, most interpersonal theories, as Anderson and Emmers-Sommer (2006) point out, do not account for the relational circumstances under which CMC partners interact. It is possible, therefore, that individuals in CMC-based romantic relationships will have difficulties gaining confirmation for their relationships owing to a lack of supportive knowledge systems.

This is at the very least dangerous because as long as technology is showing no signs of slowing down, relationship-formation online is deemed to continue and is likely to become even more prominent as integration and globalization take shape. Towards this end, it would be crucial that we shift focus from the comparisons between CMC and face-to-face interactions, and start paying more attention to the more valuable aspects of online relationships, such as determining what could be incorporated into CMC-based relationships to make them more satisfying to the parties involved. Towards this end, this study undertaking purposes to identify the forecasters of relationship satisfaction in online relationships, and then determine ways through which their significance could be improved. Thus:

RQ1: What factors predict relationship satisfaction in online romantic relationships?

There is abundant literature indicating that perceptions of individuals in online relationships become more positively skewed as the relationship progresses. Whether relationship satisfaction is affected by the passage of time, however, still remains a subject of debate. It is perceived that CMC partners who communicate more would think differently of their relationship, compared to those who communicate less. However, we all appreciate the fact that CMC brings about intimacy faster than face-to-face interactions, and it is possible, therefore, that as time passes and the partners get to know each other, their perceptions of both the relationship and their partner could change. Towards this end:

RQ2: For CMC-based relationships, do perceptions of psychological well-being come out differently depending on the length of the relationship?

RQ3: For CMC-based relationships, do perceptions of psychological well-being come out differently depending on the amount of communication?

Literature Review

Relationship Satisfaction

Relationship satisfaction, in the words of Anderson and Emmers-Sommer (2006), is "the degree to which an individual is content and satisfied with his/her relationship" (p. 155). Sidelinger, et al.'s (2006) view mirrors this -- they describe relationship satisfaction as the ability of a relationship to act as a source of well-being and social support for the parties involved, and thereby yield a better quality of life than they would have otherwise led in their individual capacities. This, from the perspective of Kirk (2013), translates to the extent to which an individual feels that they are experiencing what they actually expected to experience from their relationship and their partner. There evidently are huge variations in what researchers perceive relationship satisfaction to actually represent; nonetheless, there is consensus that it is a crucial determinant of the extent to which a relationship is likely to grow. This positive correlation between relational satisfaction and relationship success has been explained differently by different researchers. Kirk (2013) for instance links the same to commitment, trust, and intimacy. In her view, couples with high levels of relational satisfaction are also likely to report higher levels of commitment, trust, and intimacy. Perry (2010) also acknowledges a positive correlation between satisfaction and relationship success, but in her view, commitment, trust, and intimacy are only external products of an inner element -- communication satisfaction.

Kirk (2013) and Sidelinger, et al. (2006) contend that proximity is a key construct of relationship satisfaction. In face-to-face interactions, proximity/closeness is derived from the physical contact shared by partners; however, in the case of online relationships, where parties communicate on Facebook, Skype, and Twitter, and perhaps never interact physically, it may depend primarily on the frequency and quality of communication (Anderson and Emmers-Sommer, 2006). In this regard, face-to-face interactions are often perceived to yield higher levels of satisfaction than CMC, perhaps because by allowing for physical contact, it gives partners the opportunity to learn about the other person's behaviors and attitudes, and hence to have higher levels of trust and commitment. The media naturalness and media richness theories exacerbate this issue, postulating that the latter's lack of cues hinders communication and emotional connectedness (Perry, 2010).

This study, however, adopts Walther's social information processing theory, which postulates that with increased familiarity and use, "users are able to overcome the lack of cues and other drawbacks to the channel, and find the use of CMC advantageous" for relational maintenance (Perry, 2010, p. 3). This framework forms the basis of this study. However, before we can determine how CMC could be adjusted to yield more relationship satisfaction, we first need to develop an index for measuring the level of satisfaction both prior to, and after the adjustment.

Predictors of Relationship Satisfaction

Similarity: Anderson and Emmers-Sommer (2006) and Perry (2010) contend that the degree of similarity between partners is a key construct of social relationships, responsible for attracting people to others with similar backgrounds, attitudes, hobbies, and interests. In the view of Anderson and Emmers-Sommer (2006), similarity "takes the place of proximity" in the case of online relationships (p. 156). Perry (2010) opines that people are likely to be more satisfied in their relationships if they can establish some form of familiarity and connectedness with the other party. Sidelinger, et al. (2006) acknowledge that it may be difficult to establish the degree of similarity between partners in the case of online relationships, given that there is minimal physical contact, and hence, limited opportunity for partners to evaluate each others' attitudes and behaviors. However, as Anderson and Emmers-Sommer (2006) point out, it is this very lack of physical contact that attracts partners to each other -- it drives partners to make over-attributions about their similarities and encourages responses that align with these perceived similarities, which would often draw partners to each other and increase the level of satisfaction. As long as this perceived similarity is there, psychological satisfaction will be present.

Commitment: relational commitment refers to the extent to which one desires to remain in the relationship; and how much they anticipate its continuity (Sidelinger, et al., 2006; Anderson & Emmers-Sommer, 2006). It is a widely accepted fact that one would only desire to stay in a relationship indefinitely if they are deriving the satisfaction they expected to derive from it. Towards this end, a person's level of commitment to their relationship is essentially the measure of satisfaction they derive from it. Sidelinger, et al. (2006) express that one's commitment could be measured by the level of investment they make in the relationship, and their perception of the quality of alternative relationships. Towards this end, higher commitment is signaled by one perceiving his/her relationship as superior to alternative relationships, ignoring attractive alternative relationships, and being willing to sacrifice for the relationship, accommodate the other party, and make high investments in the relationship (Sidelinger, et al., 2006). Wrench and Punyanunt-Carter (2007), focusing on CMC, studied the relational commitment characteristics of 145 CMC-active undergraduate students and concluded that individuals encounter moderate commitment levels with their online pals. Towards this end, one can rightly report that persons would feel commitment towards their online dating partners, and the level of commitment would be a positive influence of relational satisfaction.

Trust: the uncertainty-reduction theory postulates that people would often seek to acquire information about their partners' relationship-oriented behavior in a bid to reduce uncertainty and anxiety (Anderson & Emmers-Sommer, 2006). According to the authors, an individual's behavioral predictability is a key component of trust; and people will naturally employ uncertainty-reducing strategies to obtain information about the behavior of their relational partner as a means of assessing their level of commitment. The motivation to engage in such strategies will, however, largely depend on an individual's level of trust and uncertainty. Anderson and Emmers-Sommer (2006) opine that "people high in uncertainty and subsequently low in trust possess greater motivation to examine and assess their partner's level of commitment" (p. 158). Kirk (2013) expresses a view similar to this -- in her perspective, people low in trust are more likely to exhibit negative reactions to info relating to their partners, especially if they deem the same as being unfavorable. In the opinion of Anderson and Emmers-Sommer (2006), the ultimate objective of uncertainty-reduction in romantic relationships is to bring about feelings of security and attachment. Focusing on CMC, Kirk (2013) notes that security is central to relationship satisfaction, which implies, therefore, that the extent to which one trusts their relational partner, online or otherwise, has a significant effect on relationship satisfaction.

Intimacy: Baack, et al. (2000); Sidelinger, et al. (2006) and Anderson and Emmers-Sommer (2006) contend that intimacy is central to psychological satisfaction in dating relationships. Drawing reference from the social penetration theory, Baack, et al. (2006) express that "relationships change, normally becoming deeper and more trusting as people gradually reveal themselves to one another" (p. 39). Communication patterns change as a relationship evolves and partners get accustomed to each other. Walther's social information processing theory, which forms the conceptual basis of this study, is based on this framework -- that with frequent and continued use, CMC users adapt to the context and low bandwidth of their communication formulae, and begin to employ other cues to increase the level of intimacy, self-sufficiency and communication satisfaction (Perry, 2010). Perry (2010) identifies the use of emoticons and such common abbreviations as LOL (laugh out loud) and ROTFL (rolling on the floor laughing) as some of the adaptation techniques commonly used to communicate humor or create emotional connectedness in CMC, particularly social media networks.

Hian, et al. (2011), compare the development of psychological intimacy in CMC vis-a-vis face-to-face communications and report that intimacy is achieved faster in the former, owing to the high frequency of communication and virtual interaction. Anderson and Emmers-Sommer's (2006) perceived similarity concept -- that the lack of physical contact in CMC-based romantic relationships drives partners to make over-attributions about their similarities and encourage responses that align with these perceived similarities -- also partially explains why this is so. Towards this end, we can expect high psychological intimacy levels amongst CMC partners; in the same way, we can acknowledge its role in determining the level of relational satisfaction derived from online romantic relationships.

Communication satisfaction: According to Sidelinger, et al. (2006), communication satisfaction is the feeling that one is being understood by their partner. Nonetheless, the authors admit that communication satisfaction is a difficult process requiring the commitment of both partners. The field of communication satisfaction has been widely studied, but As Anderson and Emmers-Sommer (2006) point out, most of these studies have focused on relationships in general, and very few have accounted for romantic relationships in online settings.

Thomas, Booth-Butterfield and Booth Butterfield (1995), for instance, studied the effect of perceived parental deception on communication satisfaction in parent-child relationships and reported that the latter decreased as a child's perception of their parent's deception increased. Further, the researchers found a positive correlation between communication satisfaction and the frequency of communication, implying that a child would derive higher levels of relational satisfaction when interacting with a parent they communicate with more often. Sidelinger, et al. (2006) summarized the findings of several studies exploring communication satisfaction as a component of romantic relationships and identified feelings of being understood, and agreement between partners as the greatest predictors of communication satisfaction in romantic dyads. Moreover, they found a positive correlation between communication satisfaction and relational satisfaction.

Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) explain the correlation between communication satisfaction and relational satisfaction within the social exchange theory realm. In their view, the development of human relations depicts some form of exchange, such that a relationship grows as the benefits derived from it exceed the costs. According to Anderson and Emmers-Sommer (2006), relational communication is one of the benefits derived from a relationship. Towards this end, one can rightly argue that greater relational happiness (signifying relational growth) is achieved if communication between parties is satisfying - that is, "if a person feels understood by his/her partner" (Anderson & Emmers-Sommer, 2006, p. 159). Perry (2010) expresses that satisfying communication creates some form of emotional connectedness, which influences the level of relationship satisfaction.

Communication Satisfaction: CMC vs. Face-to-Face (FtF)

The inferiority of CMC as a means of relationship maintenance is supported to a large extent by the media richness and media naturalness hypotheses, both of which base their arguments on the fact that the asynchronous nature of CMC hinders a receiver's ability to seek clarification and therefore interpret the sender's emotions and feelings accurately (Perry, 2010). The media naturalness hypothesis, for instance, postulates that, ceteris paribus, "a decrease in the degree of naturalness of a communication medium (or its degree of similarity to the face-to-face medium) leads to" decreased physiological arousal and increased likelihoods of communication ambiguity and cognitive effort (Kock, 2005, p. 117). The media richness hypothesis, on the other hand, posits that as long as a medium does not provide verbal cues that allow for immediate feedback, it presents a high likelihood of miscommunication (Perry, 2010). According to Perry (2010), both hypotheses are based on the ideology that humans are naturally more comfortable communicating face-to-face, and have continually developed skills inclined towards this end, such that anything outside the scope of FtF is regarded as unnatural.

Kock (2005) is, however, quick to point out that the lack of verbal cues premise, upon which the two hypotheses are based, is made insignificant by the advancement in communication technologies, which has seen the development of video communication formats such as Skype, and social media chatrooms that allow for immediate feedback and reduce chances of misrepresentation. Scores of researchers have, however, still found face-to-face communications to be more satisfying and more effective as tools of relational maintenance, compared to CMC.

For instance, assessing the levels of communication and relational satisfaction derived from three modes of communication (face-to-face instant messaging, and videoconferencing), within the framework of the media naturalness theory, Simon (2006) found that although the mode used had no effect on performance, CMC yielded lower levels of overall satisfaction. These findings mirror those of Mallen (2003) and his colleagues who compared the overall satisfaction levels (communication and relational) of individuals who completed group assignments through face-to-face interactions with their colleagues who conducted their discussions through CMC; and found the latter to have lower depths of processing, less closeness, and lower satisfaction levels. Sidelinger, et al. (2006) summarize the findings of several studies analyzing the effect of interaction involvement on communication and relational satisfaction in romantic settings, and report a positive association between interaction involvement and one's adjustment/coping abilities, which in the case was taken to represent relational satisfaction.

Perry (2010), however, puts forth a different case. In her view, a communication command "exists as a reflection of the relationship between those who are interacting," but this is only so, as long as content is not being overshadowed by such command cues as facial expression and body language - because then, miscommunication would be almost inevitable (p. 8). She posits that since CMC lacks such cues, the whole overshadowing problem is eliminated. Towards this end, the author appears to be in agreement with Anderson and Emmers-Sommer (2006) -- that the presence of non-verbal cues is not a guarantee for communication satisfaction; and does not therefore make FtF ultimately superior over CMC in regard to relationship maintenance. Perry (2010) argues that communication satisfaction in a relationship extends beyond just the presence/absence of non-verbal cues; it has a lot more to do with the manner in which these cues are employed, if present, or compensated for, if absent. With this argument, she introduces the concept of filtering back cues as a way of influencing an individual's experience of a communication channel and getting them to adapt to the same.

CMC Adaptation (Walther's Social Information Processing Theory)

Perry (2010) and Anderson and Emmers-Sommer (2006) contend that current interpersonal models have failed to account for the possibility that a user could adapt to a communication channel over time, thereby learning how to create emotional connectedness, and to consequently derive satisfaction when using the same to communicate with their partner. Moreover, most studies have blatantly ignored the fact that communication patterns partners' degree of familiarity with their communication medium changes (Perry, 2010). Furthermore, as Sidelinger, et al. (2006) point out, the element of familiarity between communicating partners could also have an effect on the level of relational and communication satisfaction derived from an online relationship.

Guided by the framework of the social information processing theory, Kock (2005) reports that CMC users can easily adapt to their communication channels and patterns to an extent that they become similar to face-to-face communications in terms of both naturalness and richness. Mallen and his colleagues (2003) draw similar findings from their study, which attempted to compare the satisfaction levels of group members who complete task assignments via FtF against another group whose operations were solely based on CMC. The authors report that practice makes perfect, and hence, psychological intimacy/closeness develops as one becomes more accustomed to the channel used for communication. This conclusion is based on the finding that those CMC participants who communicated more with other group members felt closer to their colleagues, compared to those who communicated less often (Mallen, et al., 2003).

Evidently, the existing body of literature focuses more on the comparisons between FtF and CMC in regard to relationship satisfaction, and is more inclined towards proving the superiority (inferiority) of FtF (CMC), rather than showing how the same could be improved so that online partners also gain satisfaction in their relational niche. Moreover, very few studies seem to appreciate the fact that the degree of satisfaction derived from a relationship (online relationships in particular) would, in addition to the quality of medium used, depend on other factors such as the frequency of communication and the perceived quality of the same. Based on this background, the researcher reckons that there still are huge knowledge gaps in this area of study, particularly in regard to the techniques that online dating partners could employ to make their relationships more satisfying. Towards this end, this text purposes to identify ways through which the level of emotional connectedness could be increased to boost overall satisfaction in online relationships. In so doing, it seeks to complement the existing studies, thereby making the existing body of literature more accommodating of online relationships. The researcher reckons that it is time focus was shifted from the comparison aspect, to providing social support systems for online relationships whose prevalence is likely to become even more prominent as globalization takes shape.

Hypotheses

The existing literature accords no differential treatment to the predictors of relationship satisfaction in FtF settings when used in the context of online relationships. Most studies make use of the same elements to predict relationship satisfaction in CMC and FtF relationships (H1). On a different note, according to Walther's social information processing theory, individuals are, with increased usage and familiarity, able to adapt to their communication channels, thereby allowing for better perceptions of use, and more positive experiences (H2 and H3). Based on these rationales, the researcher hypothesizes that:

H1: the degree of similarity between partners, and the levels of commitment, trust, intimacy, and communication satisfaction can rightly be used to predict relationship satisfaction in online relationships.

H2: For CMC romantic relationships, perceptions of psychological satisfaction become more positively skewed as the length of the relationship increases.

H3: For CMC romantic relationships, perceptions of psychological satisfaction become more positively skewed as the amount of communication increases.

Dependent and Independent Variables

Relationship satisfaction is identified as the dependent variable in hypothesis H1, and similarity, commitment, trust, intimacy, and communication satisfaction levels identified as the independent variables. In hypothesis H2, the length of the relationship is the independent variable, and psychological satisfaction the dependent variable. Similarly, the amount of communication represents the independent variable in hypothesis H3, and psychological satisfaction the dependent variable.

Methods

The study will target young people between ages twenty and thirty. Data will be collected using the questionnaire survey technique, with questions touching on personal background as well as on the variables for assessing relationship satisfaction, rated on a scale varied from 'a very large extent' to 'no opinion'.

Participant Selection: since data will only be collected within the university compound, participants are largely expected to be students of the University of the Rockies. They will be selected using the simple random sampling technique and will be required to fill out the questionnaire and hand it back to the interviewer. The random sampling technique is deemed appropriate for this study because it often results in an unbiased test sample, whose results could provide the researcher with a valid basis for predicting the likely trend in relationship development (Babbie, 2010). The researcher reckons that carry-home questionnaires would be more appropriate, and would provide the researcher with ample time to think and give more accurate details. However, the procedural modalities involved in the data collection process and the fact that no list of respondents will be compiled hamper this kind of technique. The questionnaire will, however, be designed to the convenience of respondents, and will take no more than ten minutes to complete. Participants will kindly be requested to take part in the survey, and will neither be coerced nor forced to participate. Moreover, no form of compensation will be offered to those who volunteer to take part in the survey, first, because of financial limitations, and secondly, because the researcher strongly feels that such a move would impede on voluntary participation.

Confidentiality will be maintained at all stages, and data collected will be used solely for purposes of the study. Participants will be advised not to indicate their names or anything that could reveal their identities on the survey sheet. Additionally, survey administrators will be required to maintain the confidentiality of all records and information collected during the survey, and will reiterate the significance of confidentiality to participants during the data collection process. In line with the voluntary participation requirement, a provision will be made, allowing participants to withdraw from the process at any time, or to refuse to respond to any question that they feel infringes on their personal space (Cozby & Bates, 2012).

Data Collection Measure: 100 questionnaires will be administered at ten central workstations within the university. Selective sampling will be used to select the ten workstations so as to minimize the risk of repetitive data. Landoll (2005) expresses that selective sampling makes it possible "to identify vulnerabilities that may have been overlooked though other sampling techniques" (p. 122). The points of data collection within each of the ten workstations will be changed several times during the process to minimize the risk of bias. Data will be collected between 4 pm and 6 pm over a span of two days, at the first five workstations on the first day and the remaining five workstations the following day.

Five undergraduate students, all members of the researcher's study group since freshman year, will assist in questionnaire administration and data collection. The five will receive no formal training - only brief explanations on what the study is about, the points of data collection, and the procedures for the same. The researcher will be present during data collection, but will not participate as he will be required to move from station to ensure that the process runs smoothly. No compensation will be given to the survey administrators (group members) as they had agreed to assist with the undertaking.