Sinkholes
a) Describe the conditions that lead to sinkhole formation.
According to the Missouri Department of Natural Resources, a sinkhole, or doline, can be formed in a number of different ways. Erosion is a common cause of sinkhole formation. Erosion issues such as debris shrinking, migration of debris into openings in bedrock, and even the upward movement of debris can be conditions leading to sinkhole formation (Foose). Sinkholes tend to occur in bedrock areas that contain limestone. However, any type of sedimentary rock base is prone to sinkhole formation. Thus, gypsum and salt beds are common areas that are sinkhole prone because of the high solubility of the salt bed. Likewise, bedrock with a high proportion of carbonates can dissolve easily. As Baryakh and Fedoseev point out, karst is particularly sensitive to sinkholes. Basically, the conditions that lead to sinkhole formation involve just the right combination of soluble bedrock and local water content, flow, or behavior. Acid rain foments the water issues that lead to dissolution of geological surface material causing sinkholes.
The most basic way a sinkhole is formed is when surface ground collapses in, when underground limestone caves give way. A collapse of an underground cave (usually limestone too) can cause the sinkhole. In fact, the conditions that lead to sinkhole formation are directly related to the behavior of groundwater. If the geological composition of the soil and bedrock are such that water can dissolve it, then a cavity can be created. The result is a hole or depression that can fill with more area groundwater or surface water quickly. Human factors such as the overpumping of ground water can also contribute to or cause the formation of sinkholes, as can changes in the diversion of local water systems. This is in fact what took place in the Central Arizona Project, outlined in "Sinkholes, Land Subsidence, and Swelling Soils." The size of sinkholes varies, both in terms of depth and breadth.
b) Describe several consequences related to groundwater and petroleum extraction.
When groundwater or petroleum are extracted from the earth, the result is land subsidence. Although land subsidence can take place due to other causes, extraction of ground...
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