By similar logic, evolutionary psychologists argued, women who were monogamous were fitter; by being choosy about their mates and picking only those with good genes, they could have healthier children" (2009, p. 52). Although modern men and women may not look like Cro-Magnums, they all want to act like them deep down inside because of these primordial drives. In sum, Begley concludes that, "We all carry genes that led to reproductive success in the Stone Age, and that as a result men are genetically driven to be promiscuous and women to be coy, that men have a biological disposition to rape and to kill mates who cheat on them, and that every human behavior is 'adaptive' -- that is, helpful to reproduction" (emphasis added) (p. 52).
This argument does make sense in many ways. After all, the argument goes, alpha males in other animal species routinely kill young offspring and even induce abortions in pregnant females in order to maximize their reproductive opportunities, and it is reasonable to postulate that the act of rape can be viewed in this context, even among purportedly "modern men." For example, Alfred Kinsey's seminal work in sex research explicated in Sexual Behavior in the Human Female found that "sexual behaviors that were considered rare and deviant in the 1950s were actually quite common" (Duke, 2009, p. 34). Citing a wide range of "deviant" sexual behaviors that were regarded as rare at the time, McKinsey concluded that, "Sexual promiscuity was normal, that children are sexual from birth and that rape is one of the most 'forgettable' crimes" (Duke, 2009, p. 34).
Likewise, Sanday (2007) suggests that the act of rape must be viewed in light of contemporary social practices as well as these innate biological drives that somehow compel even "normal men" to engage in abnormal acts. According to Sanday, "Anthropologists argue that while the capacity for sexual pleasure may be constitutional, human sexual behavior is rather a sociological and cultural force than a mere bodily relation of two individuals. This means that human sexuality sits precariously on the divide between individualized sensations and culturalized meanings, making it both preeminently social as well as physiological" (2007, p. 11). In other words, rape is a relative and temporally fluid concept that can change over time and from time to time. In this regard, Sanday suggests that the concept of "sexual culture" can help discern how criminal acts such as rape are viewed at a given point in time: "As sexuality straddles two worlds -- the biological and the social -- the major question for research concerns the social purposes served by types of sexual behavior. This question is answered by introducing the concept "sexual culture" (2007, p. 11).
Consequently, the act of rape involves a wide range of sociocultural as well as temporal factors that affect how it is perceived. In societies where rape is regarded as "normal," it is reasonable to expect higher rates of rape. Conversely, in societies where there are severe penalties associated with the act of rape, it is reasonable to suggest that rapes would be less commonplace, making this analysis dependent on time and place. In this regard, Sanday emphasizes that, "Because human sexual behavior is a sociological and cultural force guided by public sexual cultures -- such as reflected in pornography, the media, and religious education -- we must begin by examining popular, historically-based models for human sexual expression" (2007, p. 11).
In order to understand how rape is viewed at a given point in time, then, requires an investigation of the larger social context in which it takes place, including the perspectives of the women who are involved who may have simply been looking for a mate. As Sanday points out, "Understanding how sexual behavior has been conceived at various times in our history uncovers trends that promote female sexual choice in some contexts and deter it in others" (2007, p. 11). The determent of rape based on criminal sanctions is one thing, especially in countries where the resources exist to enforce the laws, but some authorities argue that rape is just part of the human condition because man is part of the animal kingdom. For instance, Harlow (2010) points out that, "A range of evidence establishes that virtually all of the acts considered 'sinful' in humans are part of the natural repertoire of behavior among animals -- especially primates, but also birds, insects, and other species -- behaviors including deception, bullying, theft, rape, murder, infanticide, and warfare, to name...
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