Indeed the universality of NPM could not be disputed." (Bissessar, nd) New Public Management had been introduced in many countries including the United States, the United Kingdom, New Zealand, and Australia and "was accordingly considered a more than appropriate model for the Caribbean and Latin American states as well." (Bissessar, nd)
There were various differences in the models of NPM being introduced in each of these countries. Bissessar states that "variations in the extent to which NPM had been adopted in many countries was not a new phenomenon." (Bissessar, nd) Hood (1996) notes that "...some countries have placed more emphasis on ideas than other countries, and NPM styles have even varied within the same family groups' of countries." (Bissessar, nd) it is noted that in Australia, the UK and New Zealand held a tendency for decentralization of personnel management "to line departments away from central personnel agencies..." (Bissessar, nd) no such move had been made in Japan in which the National Personnel Authority was actually provided more strength in the 1980s. Another contention is that while some countries such as Denmark, New Zealand and Sweden had adopted pay-for-performance policies that Germany had not followed suit.
IV. HOOD (1991) SEVEN DOCTRINAL PRECEPTS of NPM
The work of Hood (1991) makes the contention that there are "seven doctrinal precepts which appear in most discussion of the NPM. He regards the NPM as a 'marriage of opposites' of two different streams of ideas. One is the new institutional economics of public choice, transactions cost theory, and principal-agent theory, which generated a set of administrative reform doctrines built around the ideas of contestability, user choice, transparency and the use of incentive structures. The other element in this combination is the business type 'manageralism' drawing on the notions of scientific management and incorporating a set of doctrines based on professional management, freedom to manage and high discretionary power for the manager. The rise of the NPM was inextricably linked with the prevailing political situation in the UK in the 1980s and early 1990s." (Hewison, 2004) Therefore, the shift or transformation which occurred was one that shifted to active 'manageralism' from the consensus management that had history been typically used by public service agencies. There is stated in the work of Hewison, who cites the work of Wilson & Doig (1996) to be no actual "single or unified model of the NPM, rather it is a short-hand term for a range of principles which have been applied in a variety of ways and have different effects." (Hewison, 2004) the work of Ferlie et al. (1996) states that "There is no clear or agreed definition of what the new public management actually is and not only is there controversy about what is, or what is in the process of becoming, but also what it ought to be. (Ferlie et al., 1996; p. 10)
The work of Michael Barzelay entitled; "The New Public Management: Improving Research and Policy Dialogue" (2001) relates that New Public Management "is a field of discussion largely about policy interventions within executive government. The characteristic instruments of such policy interventions are institutional rules and organizational routines affecting expenditure planning and financial management, civil service and labor relations, procurement, organization and methods, and audit and evaluation. These instruments exercise pervasive influence over many kinds of decisions within government." (Barzelay, 2001) These instruments do not make determination of the "scope or programmatic content of governmental activity" yet at the same time "these government-wide institutional rules and organizational routines affect how government agencies are managed, operated and overseen: they structure that art of the governmental process usefully described as public management." (Barzelay, 2001) Barclay states that New Public Management (NPM) is related to analysis in a systematic manner as well as the management of public management policy.
Barzelay relates that this policy domain relates to all government-wide, centrally managed institutional rules and routines affecting the public management process." (2001) Because of this the domain of NPM "encompasses multiple organizations within government, including central agencies responsible for budgeting, accounting, civil service and labor relations, efficiency and quality, auditing and evaluation. Systematic analysis involves clear argumentation about the relationship between context, goals, policy instruments and choices." (Barzelay, 2001) This type of systematic management is a process of decision making that "is both informed by analysis and well adapted to the political and organizational forces that shape decisions and their downstream effects." (Barzelay, 2001) New Policy Management is rooted in systematic management and policy analysis. Barzelay writes that NPM is a field of discussion surrounding public management policy and states that there are two primary elements and the first of which "focuses...
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