Psychosocial Aspects of Criminal Behavior
Criminality is a multifaceted issue that is influenced by the presence or absence of several factors. The nature of these factors varies from biological and psychological factors, to social and environmental factors. As a multidimensional construct, criminality cannot be fully understood through the use of one perspective exclusively. As a complex issue, criminality requires attention to various perspectives in order to gain a comprehensive understanding of the causes and prevalence of criminal behavior. The factors that influence criminal behavior can loosely be grouped into three categories, including biological, environmental, and psychological factors. Thorough investigation of these three types of factors may yield insight into the causes and issues involved in criminal behavior.
Historically, possible biological factors involved in criminal behavior received much attention. Hereditarian claims in the United States between 1900 and 1940 argued that violent and criminal behavior had a strong genetic or neurogenetic basis (Allen, 2001). For example, Hooton claimed that, as a class, criminals possess distinct anthropometric characteristics, which included smaller body size, ectomorphic (lanky, thin) body build, straight hair, mottled eye color, shorter and broader noses, flatter ears, and a lower and more sloping forehead. Hooton also claimed that categories of criminals can be distinguished by anthropometric features. For instance, he claimed that murderers and robbers tend to be tall and thin, whereas killers, forgerers and conmen tend to be tall and heavy. Burglars, on the other hand, were claimed to be small and thin, while rapists and other sex offenders are short and heavy. Furthermore, Hooton also claimed that American-born and nine different ethnic or racial stocks differ significantly from each other in physical characteristics and the types of crimes they commit. Hooton based his claims on inferior biology, in that the degree and type of inferiority disposed one to crimes, while the environment called them forth. Of course, these claims hold no merit under the scientific scrutiny used according to today's standards, and there is an understanding that such false claims based on physical and racial characteristics are dangerous in their possible implications. However, biology has been found to play a role in criminality to certain extents.
Lee & Coccaro (2001) investigated the neuropharmacological influences involved in criminality and aggression. These researchers suggested that impulsive aggression has a role in both criminal and non-criminal behavior, and that an impulsive crime is essentially not synonymous with a premeditated one. They also suggested that impulsive aggression probably has a significant genetic, heritable component, although a single gene for aggression has not been found. It is possible that future research may find a polymorphism or combination of genes that contribute to the expression of an impulsive-aggressive phenotype.
Lee & Coccaro (2001) also discussed the role of deficient serotonergic function in behavioural disinhibition and the expression of impulsive aggression. This role has been demonstrated through the reduced levels of CSF 5-HIAA that have been associated with violent criminality. Furthermore, the serotonergic system is also very responsive to environmental factors, particularly early disruptions in development and early exposure to abuse or trauma. Impulsive aggression may be an aspect of personality that is relatively stable over a period of years, heritable, and correlated with biological variables. Therefore, the role that serotonergic functioning plays in the presence of impulsive aggression can only be understood in the context of a complicated relationship between genetics, biological processes, psychological functioning, and environmental influences.
Moreover, the expression of impulsive aggression and violent behavior is more than likely a mix of genetic and environmental factors. Lemonick (2003) claimed that a disposition for criminal behavior is determined early in life, suggesting a strong correlation between a harsh childhood and criminality later on. This author suggested that criminal behavior may be linked to a defective gene that made too much of an enzyme called monoamine oxidase A. This results in excessive destruction of neurotransmitters that help keep people calm and happy. However, many violent criminals do not exhibit this gene, while many non-criminal individuals do. This is where environmental factors possibly come into play, influencing whether or not the violent effects of the gene will be exhibited.
Lemonick (2003) explained how scientists have discovered that neither genes alone nor childhood abuse alone could explain adult violent behavior. However, a study examining boys who had both genetic mutation and early abuse indicated that 85% of these boys had committed a violent act as an adult. Furthermore, genes may influence people's susceptibility or resistance to environmental factors that are harmful, such as abuse. Someone with a low genetic predisposition for criminal...
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