Such a perception may result in reactance, a boomerang effect in which the individual reacts in a manner opposite to the persuader's intention. What these studies show, then, is that a candidate is never going to know how for sure how a negative ad may impact the voters. In the long run, it may be best to keep away from mudslinging unless able to deal with the consequences.
TV debates are another form of communication that provide input on issues and may impact the voters. Naturally, the debate that comes to mind first is the one between Kennedy and Nixon in 1960. Because Nixon hurt himself right before the TV lights came on, so he was not only exhausted but in pain as well. To top it off, his face always had a light beard, even right after he shaved. Regardless of how the debate went for Kennedy or Nixon, this was the start of a new form of communication that has since become an important element in the political voting process.
Unlike today, the first debates went right back to programming when the candidates left the stage. Now, even before the candidates arrive, commentators discuss how the speakers "will" do. This approach began in 1976 with the Carter and Ford matches. Since then, the press experts have had their say directly after the broadcast. Also, the 90-minute debate is reduced to a collection of soundbites that are played over and over again to take the place of the whole program. In the years since the Carter/Ford debate, the journalists have also overcome their hesitation of calling victors. With the assistance of instant poles, reporters can assess the performances within minutes of the closing statements. "The problem with declaring winners and losers," says David Broder of the Washington Post, in most the cases the outcome is murky" (Schroeder, 2000, p.178)
No one disputes, however, that debates attract a wide variety of people. From the first one in 1960, Americans have shown a growing interest in watching the action between the two contenders. In fact, 70 million people viewed this first Nixon/Kennedy debate. The debate between Carter and Reagan had an audience of 100 million; the second largest ever was the Clinton, Bush and Perot 1992 event with 90 million viewers. These debates almost had as large an audience as the top TV shows such as the final broadcast of "MASH" and "Who Shot JR?"
People like watching the debates, because it is actually like viewing movie stars. The debates are human intrigue and drama. New York Times columnist William Safire called these presidential debates "political-emotional events...great moments in American life when the nation comes together to share an experience neither frightening nor artificial."
Debates are to elections what treaties are to wars," says political scientist and democratic debate advisor Samuel Popkin. "They ratify what has already been accomplished on the battlefield." Since the 1960 debates, experts now agree that joint candidate appearances move perceptions more than votes. Research from numerous academic studies and political surveys indicate that these presidential debates are just one of the many factors considered at the ballot box. Further, it is virtually impossible to isolate debates from other influences on the voters' decisions.
If there is any sway by the voters after the debate, it is just to confirm what people already believe. A study by Jarman (2005) reports the reactions by registered voters to the second presidential debate in 2004. Respondents used a continuous response system that provided feedback in one-second intervals. These data were compared to a transcript of the debate to identify the strongest and weakest arguments made by candidates both for their own and opposition parties. Results suggest that political affiliation strongly influences audience reaction in two ways: (a) Republicans always rated Bush's comments higher than Democrats, whereas Democrats always rated Kerry's comments higher than Republicans; and (b) Republicans believed that Bush won the debate, whereas Democrats believed that Kerry won the debate. This research provides new support for the conclusion that debates tend to reinforce the preexisting positions of the audience warns that the amount of learning that takes place could be limited.
One of the newer TV political tactics is having candidates appear on talk and call-up shows. In both talk shows...
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