(Ng, 1994, p. 93)
The philosophy of Confucius was based essentially on that of human relationships expanded to the sphere of the state, and even beyond into the cosmos. Right conduct and proper action among individuals and groups would result in an ordered universe, one that operated according to the proper laws. By cultivating these believes and following these rules one could hope to produce a society that was perfectly ordered and self-perpetuating. The Confucian ideal of leadership has endured today among many, not only in China, but in many parts of East Asia, and has even attracted followers in the West, for it addresses the issue of responsibility as a metaphor for virtue and harmony.
Far less idealistic were the ideas of the Renaissance thinker, Niccolo Machiavelli. Machiavelli lived in Italy at a time when its various princes were contending for power. The region was riven by war and consumed by bloodshed. In his seminal work, the Prince, Machiavelli advocated a hard-nosed realism in the realms of politics and diplomatic relations. Whatever was most expedient was best for the state, the need for order and stability taken precedence over virtually all else. Machiavelli's text was a primer for political realists, an exhortation to bold and energetic ruler to take control no matter the cost in human lives and suffering, for in the end it would worth it. Speaking of how an Ancient Greek ruler, Agathocles, was able to maintain the peace and security of his state despite so many "betrayals and cruelties," Machiavelli discourses upon the use of harsh measures as a means of control:
believe that this depends on whether cruelty be well or badly used. Well used are those cruelties (if it is permitted to speak well of evil) that are carried out in a single stroke, done out of necessity to protect oneself, and are not continued but are instead converted into the greatest possible benefits for the subjects. Badly used are those cruelties which, although being few at the outset, grow with the passing of time instead of disappearing.
(Machiavelli, 1998, p. 32)
It was not that Machiavelli was advocating cruelty for cruelty's sake, but rather that he was saying that, sometimes, cruelty is necessary. The lesson of expediency is one that all leaders must learn as it is a necessary aspect of statecraft. One controls the masses through force as well as through gentler forms of persuasion. Down to the present day, others, as well, have seen the need for the Italian philosopher's realpolitik.
The constitution of the ideal state and society was a concern also of the Swiss-born philosophe, Jean-Jacques Rousseau. His style of leadership was quite different from those of the preceding, his emphasis being not on the idea of s ingle leader, but on a concept of the "General Will" as the guiding principle behind society. In Rousseau's works, such as the Confessions, the state is in effect replaced by a general consensus within society at large. The General Will is an amorphous force that directs the actions and thoughts of every member of the group. In Rousseau's mind, society is conceived of as a group. The individual is of little account, it being incumbent upon the larger society to impose its will on individual men and women if their conduct or beliefs is in any way at odds with the general ethos as represented by his General Will. There is no defining this General Will, it simply exists, and exercises its inexorable, and unchallengeable control. His idea constitutes a surrender to "natural law," a belief that this all-controlling natural will represents a return to a kind of primordial state of grace, that if adhered to will make life better for all, even if it costs certain individuals their freedom, or in the worst cases, even their lives:
All the first impulses of nature are good and straight. They move as directly as possible towards our preservation and happiness; yet, soon lacking the strength to pursue their initial direction through so much resistance, they allow themselves to be deflected by a thousand obstacles, which turn them away from the true goal and send them along oblique paths where man forgets his original destination.
(Vernes, 2006)
Rousseau's beliefs seem particularly to shape many modern political movements, including many of the programs of politicians in America, Europe, and even such nations as China that do not otherwise appear to be western-style democracies. The goal is always the importance of the group - and its needs - over the individual. One need only look at campaigns against obesity, and the like to see the continued appeal of Rousseau - the individual has no rights if those rights in any way prejudice the well-being of the collective.
The need for individual and even group rights was perhaps more...
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