Dyslexia as a Specific Learning Disability Classified under the broader rubric of specific learning disabilities, dyslexia is a severe reading disability known to have a neurological basis (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009, p. 92). Because reading and literacy are so crucial in every area of educational curricula and instructional design, students with reading disabilities like dyslexia may struggle more globally in their academics even though they do not have specific learning disabilities in other areas. Therefore, it is important that dyslexia is identified as early as possible in order to provide critical interventions for this student population.

Not all reading disabilities are dyslexia. Only one percent of all learning disabilities are correctly identified as dyslexia (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009, p. 92). Whereas the “vast majority of reading problems can be effectively remediated,” dyslexia is difficult to remediate when it manifests in its so-called “pure” or most extreme form (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009, p. 92). Identifying children with dyslexia involves paying close attention to how they perform on general literacy in early childhood, particularly in areas like phonological awareness, reading recognition, rapid automatic naming, and reading comprehension (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009). Phonological awareness refers to the ability to recognize that words are formed of smaller components known as phonemes and syllables. The brains of children with dyslexia prevent them from effectively recognizing phonemes, which then significantly impacts their ability to code and decode, read and write.

Children with dyslexia also have trouble with rapid automatic naming, which is totally different from phonological awareness and therefore reveals the complex series of cognitive functions involved in literacy. With rapid automatic naming, the student becomes able to quickly recite strings of letters, like saying the alphabet or spelling a word, as well as strings of numbers, as a phone number. Rapid automatic naming ability is linked with the ability to improve reading skills (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009). Children with dyslexia also exhibit problems with general word identification and recognition. They may add or substitute words, skip or omit other words, and mispronounce words too. Word recognition problems can manifest both when the child is reading and hearing words. The inability to effectively understand, recognize, and process words, associating those words with their underlying meaning, also leads to reading comprehension problems within this population cohort (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009). Students with dyslexia can therefore struggle in a number of different classroom environments in which the content delivery depends heavily on language. Many students with dyslexia score high on intelligence assessments and are “gifted” in areas other than reading (O’Brien, 2017, p. 1). Teachers need to understand that there are other methods of conveying content than relying on words.

Unfortunately, research has shown consistently that students with reading disabilities and dyslexia specifically “rarely catch up” and can have lifelong problems with reading and literacy (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009, p. 93). Teachers need to be empowered with the knowledge of how to apply best practices at every stage of a child’s development, focusing especially on early childhood education. The Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act (IDEA) specifically mentions dyslexia under the general rubric of learning disabilities, liberating funds that help educators and administrators meet the needs of this special population. Educators need to learn more about how to identify dyslexia as early as possible, preferably in the preschool environment. Parents also need to recognize early warning signs and participate in their child’s intervention programs. Administrators need to remain cognizant of what resources are available to them in their communities, so that they can devote and allocate the funding and resources necessary for helping students with dyslexia and the educators who help them. Special educators are in the position of providing administrators and general education teachers, as well as parents, students, and counsellors, with access to evidence-based best practice treatment interventions for students with dyslexia.

Programs for Students with Dyslexia

There are several programs available for students with dyslexia. Some programs are also designed with parents in mind, to help parents of young children identify and overcome the early signs of the reading disability. Other programs focus more on educators, such as on helping general education teachers work with students with dyslexia by understanding better how to adapt material or to provide unique approaches to reading and literacy skills development. Some programs enable collaborative teaching models to enhance communication between special education and general education teachers, and to help with instructional planning and pedagogy. For example, a cluster of programs using the Orton-Gillingham method of literacy development targets students with dyslexia. These approaches...

1). Specific programs using the Orton-Gillingham method include the Wilson Reading System, the Barton Reading Program, and the Lindamood-Bell Program (Morin, n.d., p. 1). As important as these types of programs are, they tend to be proprietary and therefore lack the ability to be consistently integrated throughout a school district, let alone a state’s school system.
The State of Virginia has offered a more comprehensive program to help all stakeholders: students, parents, teachers, administrators, and members of the community involved in dyslexia remediation. In 2002 the state passed the Regulations Governing Special Education Programs for Children with Disabilities in Virginia. These regulations specifically defined dyslexia, distinguishing it from other learning disabilities based on phonological issues. More importantly, in 2017, the Virginia Department of Education updated Code of Virginia § 22.1-253.13:2(G), to mandate teacher training programs as well as mandating the implementation of a specialized position called the Dyslexia Advisor (Virginia Department of Education, 2018a, “Dyslexia”). Effective as of 2017, the new provisions hold that every single teacher licensed and certified in the Virginia Department of Education system must complete a mandatory awareness training module to prepare them for identifying and working with students with dyslexia in their classrooms and schools. Each local school board in the State of Virginia must also employ a reading specialist with appropriate professional training and full working knowledge of best practices. Best practices for students with dyslexia include the techniques used in the classroom, a recognition of characteristics of dyslexia as per emerging research, and appropriate interventions including assistive technologies. With advanced understanding of the cognitive aspects of reading, the dyslexia advisor adds a tremendous value to the Virginia Public School system.

Problem Statement

Schools are not being provided with sufficient institutional supports to help students with dyslexia. The Virginia Department of Education program involves two important components including mandatory dyslexia awareness modules for teachers, and also the mandatory position of a dyslexia advisor in each district in the state. Although these are important first steps, more needs to be done to promote early identification. As O’Brien (2017) points out, many schools are “missing the mark” when it comes to teaching students with dyslexia effectively (p. 1). Students with dyslexia are unnecessarily falling behind in subject areas that do not need to rely so heavily on language-based instructional modules. Moreover, the dyslexia awareness module mandatory for all Virginia teachers may not be sufficient for revealing the best practices to incorporate into instructional design. It is understandable that each school would implement dyslexia adaptations for students differently depending on individual differences and other factors, but it is important to provide more comprehensive training and more consistent implementation of evidence-based practices.

Theoretical Perspectives

The primary theoretical orientation when addressing issues related to dyslexia is neurobiological. Research has shown that individuals with dyslexia have a smaller planum temporale versus those without dyslexia: revealing the actual differences in brain structure (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009, p. 90). Further research using MRIs show how the brains of students with dyslexia do work differently versus their counterparts without reading disabilities. Neurobiological theories focus on the brain and its structure, rather than on broader cognitive or psychological theories. While by far the most salient theoretical perspective addressing dyslexia and how special education programming should address it, the neurobiological approach is not the only one. Students with dyslexia do not have global learning disabilities or impaired intellectual functioning. Therefore, dyslexia could be viewed under the theoretical rubric of Gardner’s multiple intelligences theory (Taylor, Smiley & Richards, 2009). The theory of multiple intelligences shows how specialized skills like math and reading are only a few of many different areas where students demonstrate excellence. Students with dyslexia may, for example, be good at math, science, music, and physical education. They may also possess strong social skills.

The Virginia Department of Education (2018a) recognizes the neurobiological underpinning of dyslexia, stating in law that “Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin,” (p. 1). Because there is a clear neurobiological origin of dyslexia, it may become easier to develop appropriate interventions. Dyslexia is not necessarily associated with ancillary issues like behavioral or emotional disorders. Viewing dyslexia as a neurological condition makes it easier for teachers to separate other aspects of the student from the ability to…