People-Oriented Leadership
In 1911, Frederick Taylor wrote Principles of Scientific Management and Shop Management, and became the first to clearly introduce the study of people management. Taylor theorized that companies should identify the most efficient way to accomplish a job, train workers to complete each separate task in a specific way and provide equitable rewards for productivity improvements. Although Taylor is often criticized for his scientific approach that emphasized a strict division of labor and repetitive tasks, he is also commended for recognizing the need for cooperation between management and employees, fair rewards for positive work results and training programs. Over the past century, as increased globalization and technology has placed an emphasis on the acquisition of knowledge and a highly competitive customer-based service economy, a shift has occurred in organizations from task- to people-orientation. It is imperative for companies to meet the specific needs of their varied constituents -- customers, shareholders, employees and the general public. This scenario demands leadership that is people centric: These are caring and considerate leaders who are concerned about the relationship they have with others in the organization, pay close attention to their employees' needs and do their best to satisfy them and to build self-confidence (Bass, 2003). This positive working environment leads to people who are interested in handling their responsibilities and look forward to the benefits gained from completing their work.
Over the years, many researchers have defined leadership by differing parameters: Some have studied the specific traits or characteristics that explain why some people have more followers and have a much greater ability to succeed. Instead, the power theory of leadership identifies 1) social power, which analyzes how leaders influence followers to initiate and bring about change and 2) social exchange, or the give-and-take relationship between leaders and followers. Leaders are personally influenced as they influence others (Bensimon, Neumann, & Birnbaum, 1989). Recently, much attention has been directed toward transformational leadership, which "engages followers in such a way as to raise them to new levels of morality and motivation" (p.10). In their leadership approach, Bolman and Deal (2003) define four frames or perspectives that require a leader's attention: Structural, or specialized roles and formal relationships; human resource, or consideration of the individual's needs; political, or the need to bargain, negotiate and compromise; and symbolic, or the culture of the organization with its rituals and ceremonies. A leader can improve the degree of personal success "with an artful art ful adj.
1. Exhibiting art or skill: "The furniture is an artful blend of antiques and reproductions" Michael W. Robbins.
2. appreciation of the four lenses and how to use them [in order] to understand and influence what's really going on" (p. 40).
The Ohio State leadership studies of the 1940s presented the clearest demarcation of the leadership poles since Taylor (1911), centering on what leaders actually accomplish instead of on their personal makeup. The research differentiated the two dimensions of task-oriented and people-oriented leaders (Hoy & Miskel, 1996). The leader behavior description questionnaire (LBDQ Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire ) developed by Hoy and Miskel studies divides these two dimensions into high or low sections with four quadrants or leadership styles. Based on the LBDQ, administrators have the greatest effect when scoring high in consideration and initiating structure, for exampleConsideration and Initiating Structure are two dimensions of leader behavior identified as a result of the Ohio State Leadership Studies. According to the findings of these studies, leaders exhibit two types of behaviors, people-oriented (consideration) and task oriented
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Although each of these leadership theories differs in its approach, the commonality is the understanding of the distinction between a "manager" and "leader." As Maccoby (2000) explains: "While leadership is a relation between the leader and the led that can energize an organization, management is usually a function that has to be exercised." Or, more simply, management defines the tasks that are required to reach strategic goals and leadership determines how to use the resources available -- people -- to attain these goals. Essentially, this distinction highlights the two ways of approaching the way organizations are structured, either as function-
(task) or people-oriented. As noted above, the function/people designation can be best viewed on a continuum with most companies not being at either extreme.
In A Different Path, A Different Result: New Consciousness Model for Businesses, Archer (2009) stresses that there still remain many managers who use coercion and close monitoring...
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