54). Notwithstanding these criticisms and constraints, though, most social researchers seem to agree that classification by some type of research paradigm is a useful approach based on the need to determine which approach is best suited for a given research enterprise. In this regard, Corby concludes that, "The contested nature of research makes it impossible and unhelpful to ignore the different aims and purposes of various research projects and the methods and approaches being used to carry them out" (2006, p. 54). Therefore, the different aims and purposes of the positivist research paradigm, the constructivist research paradigm and the pragmatic research paradigm are discussed further below.
Positivist Research Paradigm
The positivist research paradigm is a quantitative-based approach that generally seeks to identify trends and patterns that can be used to formulate predictions concerning how humans behave. For instance, according to Neuman (2003), positivist social science is "an approach to social science that combines a deductive approach with precise measurement of quantitative data so researchers can discover and confirm causal laws that will permit predictions about human behavior" (p. 541). Likewise, Krauss (2005) notes that, "In the positivist paradigm, the object of study is independent of researchers; knowledge is discovered and verified through direct observations or measurements of phenomena; facts are established by taking apart a phenomenon to examine its component parts" (p. 759).
The quantitative basis of positivist research makes it appealing to some social researchers who cite the validity and reliability that can be achieved using these methods. In this regard, Davis (1998) emphasizes that, "The quantitative (or positivist) research paradigm is based on the assumption that research is 'value-free' and objective. It is used to test hypotheses in a controlled environment based on validity, reliability, generalization, and replication" (p. 5). It is this assumption of the positivist research paradigm as being "value-free" that has attracted some criticisms of this approach, with some researchers arguing that this is difficult if not impossible to achieve. Further, quantitative approaches such as positivist research may not deliver the reliability goods that its advocates promise. For instance, Davis adds that, "In quantitative research, the concept of reliability assumes an unchanging world, where inquiry can quite logically be replicated. In the real world, we know that change is a constant, and the social world we live in is always being constructed, therefore making replication and generalization difficult at best" (p. 5).
Despite these constraints, positivist and other quantitative-based research paradigms have been shown to be useful in educational areas as "exercise physiology, public health, trends in recreation and leisure services, and movement analysis in dance forms" (Davis, 1998, p. 5). Social researchers who are interested in discerning broader social processes in educational settings may also elect to use a positivist methodology. For instance, according to Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2000), "Positivist researchers are more concerned to derive universal statements of general social processes rather than to provide accounts of the degree of commonality between various social settings (e.g. schools and classrooms)" (p. 109). In some ways, the positivist approach relies on both numbers as well as resources that contain numbers which can then be used for further analysis. In this regard, Lin (1998) reports that, "Positivist researchers believe that they can take information from thick description or case studies about variables and hypotheses that they then test more rigorously" (p. 162). The positivist approach contrasts sharply with other research paradigms such as the constructivist paradigm which is discussed further below.
Constructivist Research Paradigm
In sharp contrast to the positivist research paradigm, the constructivist paradigm maintains that:
1. Knowledge is created via the meanings that humans attach to the phenomena under investigation;
2. Researchers interact with the subjects of study to obtain data;
3. Inquiry changes both researcher and subject; and,
4. Knowledge is context and time dependent (Krauss, 2005).
The constructivist research paradigm is also differentiated from the positivist research paradigm in that the former is essentially objectivist, or, there is the belief that it is possible for an observer to exteriorize the reality studied, remaining detached from it and uninvolved with it. The constructivist takes the
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