B.F. Skinner's Motivation of Behavior Skinner remains one of the most important contributors to the field of behaviorism. According to Skinner, individuals are often free to engage in some kind of behavior. However, most times, there are consequences associated with specific deeds or actions. Pleasant consequences are likely to motivate the kind of behavior that brought about the said consequences. This is what Skinner referred to as reinforcement learning. This text concerns itself with the modern-day application of reinforcement learning in both education and behavior therapy.

Reinforcement theory, in the words of Lussier and Achua (2009, p. 93), "purposes that through the consequences for behavior, people will be motivated to behave in predetermined ways." As the authors further point out, this particular theory makes use of behavior modification as well as operant conditioning. According to Skinner, the learning of some kind of behavior occurs via encounters with positive and negative consequences (Lussier and Achua, 2009, p. 93). As I have pointed out in the introductory section, pleasant consequences are likely to motivate the performance of the behavior that triggered the said consequences. This is the gist of reinforcement learning. This is particularly so given that the chance of performing a specific behavior is strengthened or 'reinforced' by positive outcomes. For instance, rewarding a cat with milk every time it rubs its body on ones leg is likely to make this rubbing behavior more common. In this case, milk is the reinforcer. Most of Skinner's research made use of laboratory pigeons and rats. It is important to note that although the tasks performed by these pets as well as the reinforcers Skinner made use of were rather simple, his experiments were able to give an insight into the behavior of people not only in simple, but also in complex scenarios.

It is important to note, from the onset, that operant conditioning has been utilized in a variety of practical settings including, but not limited to, teaching (i.e. with regard to classroom management), behavioral therapy (i.e. with regard to behavior modification), and animal training (i.e. training of pets). Before highlighting some of the practical applications of reinforcement learning in a practical situation, it would be prudent to highlight just how Skinner proved that his findings were indeed justified and founded on fact. Skinner was keen to demonstrate that positive reinforcement did indeed work and with this, he introduced a Skinner box and proceeded to place a hungry rat therein. Inside the box was a rod which at first the rat knocked as it moved about. However, each time the rat knocked the rod, a food item (pellet) would fall inside the box. With time, the rat learnt that pressing the lever would result in food -- thus repeating the action whenever it required food. I have repeated this example to indicate just how positive reinforcement contributes towards the strengthening of a specific behavior. In that regard, therefore, when a specific outcome is found to be rewarding, the behavior resulting in that specific outcome is likely to be strengthened.

In seeking to bring negative reinforcement to the fore, Skinner positioned a rodent in a box and subjected it to an electric shock which was only stopped one the rat run about the box and accidentally knocked over a lever. Eventually, the rat came to associate the knocking of the lever with the stopping of the electric shock -- effectively meaning that every time it was subjected to the said electric shock, it would head straight to the leaver. The need to escape the current which brought about some discomfort meant that the rat would repeat the action/behavior time and again.

In essence, Skinner was interested in both how the pets he utilized in his research learned how to undertake or engage in various tasks/behaviors, as well as what impact reinforcement had on the said learning. Of key importance in this case is the fact that the learner experiences a more pleasant state from reinforcement. Positive reinforcement could, therefore, be likened to a reward. On this front, a pleasant stimulus follows a behavior. When the termination of a negative stimulus is what results from a specific behavior, then this is referred to as negative reinforcement. A good example would in this case be when an alcoholic takes a bottle of vodka to fight a splitting headache in the morning. Given that this involves the removal or taking away something from the learner, i.e. stopping the splitting headache, this could be regarded as negative reinforcement -- whereby a more pleasant outcome is the result. In essence, the behavior is, as a result of the reinforcement, not only made stronger, but also highly likely to be repeated -- particularly because the outcome is desirable. While positive...

Positive reinforcement in a sporting perspective could involve the issuance of medals to the winning team, while negative reinforcement, in the context of a learning environment, could involve reprimanding a child for poor performance. In both cases, an increase in the target behavior is always the end result.
Reinforcement learning, as Tuckman (2009) points out, is an important tool for teachers as they seek to modify the behaviors of learners so as to facilitate learning and further enhance classroom management. In a classroom setting, a number of positive reinforces could be utilized to enhance the likelihood of desired actions. Positive reinforcers could in this case include, but they are not limited to, permitting a learner to assume their favorite sitting position in class, giving praise, issuing candies, etc. (Tuckman, 2009). In the words of Tuckman in today's educational setting, "activity reinforcers are amongst the most educational relevant, since the activity can be done with educational value such as doing a jigsaw puzzle or watching an instructional video." However, as the authors further point out, there is need to ensure that the activity reinforcer is immediately preceded by the desired behavior so as to "strengthen the response."

Reinforcement learning has also gained significant prominence in the realm of developmental disabilities. Given their behavioral deficits, people with disabilities require special education. In a special classroom setting, behavioral modification could be used in the control of behaviors seen as being problematic, such as noncompliance with class rules, toileting, and personal hygiene. The same could also come in handy in the further enhancement of functional skill deficits as well as promotion of self-management. Students could in this case be taught appropriate behaviors by not only modeling desired behaviors, but by also coming up or formulating class routines aimed at reinforcing positive behaviors.

Behavior modification has also been instrumental in seeking to change the problematic behaviors of people. In this case, the purpose of behavior change and/or modification is often to alter or reshape the concerned individual's behavior, while seeking to bring about a positive impact with regard to a certain aspect of an individual's life.

This is more so the case when it comes to those kinds of behaviors that are in one way or another disruptive to an individual's life, behaviors seen as being inappropriate or unacceptable on the basis of someone's mental abilities or even age, etc. It is important to note that behavioral therapies are founded on the assumption that, in essence, behaviors are learnt. If that is indeed true, then behaviors can be 'unlearnt' and others adopted. In the words of Spiegler and Guevremont (2009), "reinforcement always increases the frequency of a behavior." According to the Counseling Directory (2014), some of the techniques used by operant conditioning in an attempt to alter the erratic behavior of an individual include modeling, punishment, as well as positive reinforcement. Some of the strategies that could be utilized as far as therapy is concerned are: token economies, contingency management and modeling, as well as extinction (Counseling Directory, 2014). Of key importance here, as far as reinforcement learning is concerned, is token economies. This approach, according to the Counseling Directory (2014) is founded on positive reinforcement, where people are offered tokens that could be redeemed for a variety of desired items or privileges when the desired (positive) behavior is displayed.

Conclusion

It is clear from the discussion above that positive and negative reinforcement is as effective in shaping human behavior, as it was within Skinner's box. In that regard, reinforcement learning has practical applications in a variety of settings, in addition to the ones discussed above. Professionals in many other fields such as prisons officials, marketing executives, etc., therefore have an opportunity to make use of reinforcement learning to influence the behaviors of those they interact with on a daily basis.

References

Counseling Directory. (2014). Behavior Therapy. Retrieved from http://www.counselling-directory.org.uk/behavioural.html

Lussier, R. & Achua, C. (2009). Leadership: Theory, Application, and Skills Development (4th ed.). Mason, OH: Cengage Learning.

Tuckman, B. (2009). Operant Conditioning. Retrieved from http://www.education.com/reference/article/operant-conditioning/

Spiegler, M. & Guevremont, D. (2009). Contemporary Behavior Therapy (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning.