Fundamentals of Personal Finance

Part A: Understanding Long Term Savings Plans: Pension System and the 401K Retirement Plan in the United States

The United States pension system is marked by both public and private initiatives to ensure the financial security of its retirees. One of the most recognized tools for long-term savings in the U.S. is the 401K plan, an employer-sponsored defined-contribution pension account named after a section of the Internal Revenue Code.

1. Voluntary or Mandatory Contributions

Participation in a 401K plan is voluntary, and employees decide whether to enroll, as well as how much they want to contribute. The percentage of the contribution varies and can go up to 100% of the employee's income, but the IRS sets a maximum annual contribution limit. As of 2021, this limit is $19,500 for individuals under 50 and $26,000 for those 50 or older. Employers often match a portion of an employee's contribution, providing an additional incentive to participate.

2. Inclusions of the Pension

The 401K plan essentially provides retirement savings, but it doesn't inherently include insurance coverages. However, many employers that offer 401K plans also offer various types of insurance, such as life and disability insurance. The specific types and extent of insurance coverage will depend on the individual employer's benefits package.

3. Net Pension Replacement Rate

The replacement rate for a 401K plan varies greatly depending on individual circumstances, including the amount contributed, the return on investments, and the lifespan of the retiree. On average, however, American retirees might expect to replace about 40% to 60% of their pre-retirement income from all sources, including Social Security, 401K, and other savings, according to the Center for Retirement Research at Boston College.

4. Policies to Incentivize More Savings

The U.S. government encourages participation in 401K plans through tax incentives. Contributions to a traditional 401K plan are made pre-tax, which means that they reduce the participant's taxable income. Additionally, the investment earnings in a 401K account grow tax-deferred until withdrawal. Some employers also offer Roth 401K options, where contributions are made post-tax, but withdrawals in retirement are tax-free.

5. Investment of Collected Money

The money in a 401K plan is typically invested in a mix of stocks, bonds, and money market investments. The choice of how to allocate these funds is usually left to the plan participant, allowing them to choose a risk level that suits their financial goals and risk tolerance. Many 401K plans also offer target-date funds, which automatically adjust the investment mix to become more conservative as the participant nears retirement.

6. Management of the Money

The management of 401K plans is handled by private sector companies, typically financial services firms, under the regulation of the Department of Labor and the Internal Revenue Service. The employer selects the plan provider, but the responsibility of choosing the specific investments typically falls on the employee.

7. Associated Risks

A significant risk for the 401K participant is investment risk. The value of the investments can go up or down, affecting the value of the retirement fund. Additionally, there's the risk of outliving the savings. This risk is heightened by the fact that 401K plans do not guarantee a certain benefit at retirement, unlike traditional pension plans. Other risks include the potential for changes in tax law or other relevant regulations. Also, withdrawing funds from a 401K plan before the age of 59.5 will usually trigger a 10% early withdrawal penalty, besides being subject to income tax.

Part B. Financial Literacy Gender Differences

Financial literacy, a critical facet of economic empowerment, remains unevenly distributed between...

…to enhance financial education at all ages to improve financial literacy and encourage saving. For example, implementing financial education programs in schools and providing adults with accessible resources can help individuals make informed financial decisions throughout their life.

Another policy approach is to promote retirement savings through tax incentives and automatic enrollment in retirement savings plans. The automatic enrollment of employees in 401(k) plans, with the option to opt-out, has been shown to significantly increase participation rates. Similarly, the Saver's Credit, a non-refundable tax credit for eligible taxpayers who make retirement contributions, can incentivize saving.

Moreover, policies that provide a safety net for individuals who experience economic shocks can help protect retirement savings. This could include robust unemployment insurance and policies to control healthcare costs. Unemployment insurance is a type of social safety net designed to provide income support for individuals who lose their jobs through no fault of their own. By replacing a portion of lost wages, these benefits can prevent individuals from depleting their retirement savings to cover daily living expenses during periods of unemployment. In the United States, for example, the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act of 2020 expanded unemployment insurance to provide additional support to workers affected by the pandemic-induced economic downturn.

On the healthcare front, the rising cost of medical care is a significant challenge for many, particularly seniors. High healthcare costs can force individuals to draw on their retirement savings, leaving them less financially secure in their later years. Policies that aim to control healthcare costs can therefore help protect these savings. For instance, measures could include regulating drug prices, increasing the transparency of healthcare pricing, expanding preventive care to rduce the incidence of costly illnesses, and providing subsidies or public insurance…