¶ … Chemical Substances on Liver and Kidney Enzymes and Tissues
A number of common consumer products and foods contain toxic substances that can have an adverse effect on liver and kidney enzymes and tissues (Steenland & Fletcher 2010). In addition, a number of naturally occurring and artificial substances contain toxic elements that are harmful to these organs (Steenland & Fletcher 2010). In this regard, Satarug and Nishjo (2004, p. 1512) report for example, "The metals cadmium and lead are ubiquitous environmental pollutants of increasing worldwide concern because of their renal toxicity and long residence time in the kidney." Likewise, Maher (1997) emphasizes that one of the most common toxic substances ingested by humans is alcohol which can have a deleterious effect on the liver, but even more so as it is metabolized. In this regard, Maher (1997, p. 6) reports that, "As alcohol is broken down in the liver, a number of potentially dangerous by-products are generated, such as acetaldehyde and highly reactive molecules called free radicals. Perhaps more so than alcohol itself, these products contribute to alcohol-induced liver damage."
In fact, ordinary anti-inflammatory medications such as acetaminophen represent a real threat to liver health. For example, Gorman (2002, p. 3) reports that, "Acetaminophen is present in many over-the-counter and prescription drugs (e.g., Tylenol, Nyquil, Excedrin) and is safe for most people when taken as prescribed. When it is taken in excess or over a long period of time, however, serious liver damage is the predictable result." Other toxic substances that are encountered on a regular basis by humans that have a harmful effect on the liver and kidneys include toluene, kylene, dioxins, PCBs, chromium and arsenic (Bryant 1999). In addition, food products such as the Death Cap mushroom can destroy liver and kidney tissues and the vast majority of people that ingest them die within 5 to 10 days (Nyerges 2002). In sum, humans routinely encounter a wide range of substances in the environment that can be toxic to the liver and kidneys at some point during their metabolism.
Topic area
The topic area of interest to the study proposed herein is the effect of certain chemical substances described further below on liver and kidney enzymes and tissues.
Research question
The overarching research question that will guide the proposed study is: "Can the nine presumed nongenotoxic rodent carcinogens, diethylhexyl phthalate, cinnamyl anthranilate, chlorendic acid, 1,4-dichlorobenzene, monuron, ethylene thiourea, diethyl thiourea, trimethyl thiourea, and d-limonene), induce acute or subacute biochemical and tissue changes that can serve as predictors of nongenotoxic rodent carcinogenesis?"
Significance to knowledge
Because the elderly segment of the American population is growing faster than any other, it is important to identify age-related problems that can adversely affect the function of the liver and kidneys (Elkhalifa & Khateim 2007). In this regard, Elkhaifa and Khateim (2007, p. 123) emphasize that, "As human age advance some changes takes place in the biological processes [including] a reduction in secretions of digestion tract enzymes, and a decrease in the ability of liver and kidney to perform their functions efficiently."
Literature review
Studies concerning liver and kidney functions are vitally important because the liver is one of the largest and most complex organs in the human body and works with the kidneys to eliminate wastes and keep the body healthy. For example, according to Marsano & Mendez (2003, p. 247), the liver "performs multiple functions, including the production of proteins and enzymes, detoxification, metabolic functions, and the regulation of cholesterol and blood clotting." These metabolic processes are essential to human health and functioning, and the liver and kidneys generally perform their tasks efficiently. In this regard, Mottram (2003, p. 7) advises that, "The body has a very efficient system for transforming chemicals into safer molecules which can then be excreted by the various routes of elimination. This process is known as metabolism and many drugs which enter the body undergo metabolic change."
When chemicals of any type are ingested by humans, they are absorbed primarily through the small intestine where they are then distributed throughout the bloodstream by attaching themselves to blood proteins such as albumin (Schein 1999). Some of the chemicals will be distributed to tissue and organ receptors where they produce the majority of their positive or negative effects (Schein 1999). Some chemicals are sufficiently water soluble that they can be excreted through the kidneys; however, the majority of chemicals must undergo molecular changes in order for them to be excretable by the kidneys (Schein 1999). According to Schein (1999, p. 29), "The liver usually accomplishes this by taking the drug molecule into a liver...
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