Junior golf programs provide a level of learning that instills confidence, ability, and aptitude to those who participate. Social cognitive theory provides a framework from which to advance a deeper understanding of learning and development. From communication and observation, youth who participate in junior golf programs formulate a sense of fairness, competitive spirit, and confidence that transcends the sport and continues on to school and other aspects of participants' lives. Along with learning, improving physical health via exercise can lead to positive changes both mentally and physically as seen in the Health Belief Model. This literature review aims to connect both social learning theory and the health belief model to the efficacy of junior golf programs and provide examples from previous studies that show the benefits of providing at-risk youth a positive outlet like sports. Effect of Sports Programs on Children/Teens Health

Perceived Barriers of Physical Activity

The health belief model helps identify perceived barriers. In a 2013 study, researchers examined Thai children (primary school age) and the impact of perceived barriers in regards to physical activity. The results pointed to playing outdoors near strangers, bad weather, having too much homework as main obstacles in performing physical activity. These hurdles to good health demonstrate that environment plays a role in how much physical activity a child/teen has. "A safe environment and fewer barriers, such as amount of homework, could enhance physical activity in primary school children" (Ar-yuwat, Clark, Hunter, & James, 2013, p. 119). At-risk teens often live in troubled environments where they are afraid to play outside. They may live in neighborhoods that are poorly maintained where criminal activity takes place.

The strengths of this cross-sectional study are that it helps the reader understand what type of barriers may lead to reduced physical activity in youth. Environmental plays a significant role in the level of motivation and desire a child/tee has to remain physically active. Programs like junior golf give options to underserved youth by giving them a place that is safe and controlled where they can exercise and learn through sports.

Barriers to physical activity may not just come from the environment. It may also come from negative beliefs associated with sexuality. Homosexuality and sports are not seen by some as congruent. Some believe homosexuality evokes femininity and femininity is seen as the antithesis to physical prowess and athleticism. However, these perceptions have diminished as seen in a 2011 study that examined participants' perceptions of gay male athletes. Results showed there was no negative correlation among sports fans between homosexuality and athletic ability. The results even demonstrated a slight positive correlation showing perceived barriers are just that, perceptions (Campbell et al., 2011).

Underserved communities often have a population of homosexual youths. These negative perceptions may thwart their involvement in sports. Programs like junior golf may replace these negative perceptions with positive and concrete results. The study is another step forward into elimination of perceived barriers. Because homosexuality remains a taboo subject, discussion of this concern helps bring out the truth behind these correlations so more youth can participate and be active in sports ad disregard negative stereotypes.

The same femininity perceived in homosexuality can also be said of girls and women. Females are not encouraged to participate in certain sports because it is seen as a masculine activity. However, a 2011 article suggests there is encouragement for females to participate in sports and the inequalities lie with males. The study focused on a four-part periodization of both counter-hegemonic and hegemonic gender ideologies. The findings suggest males do not have as many options compared to females when it came to youth sports. The researchers explored such findings via 'soft essentialism', however, more information needs to point to what kind of options females are given compared to males. "By contrast, adults still don't have very sophisticated ways of thinking about boys, beyond assuming that everything they do is driven Messner by "testosterone," and by their natural predispositions to be active, aggressive, and competitive" (Messner, 2011, p. 161-162). Some minor focus led to the belief that males cannot participate in 'feminine' sports like figure skating or cheerleading and need to demonstrate more physical prowess.

Another potential barrier to physical activity is addiction. Alcoholism and drug use is prevalent across the world. Sports may help some youth, but the article shows sports may also cause enough stress to increase alcohol and drug use, especially when youth participate in team and individual sports (Kulesza, Grossbard, Kilmer, Copeland, & Larimer, 2014). This article helps glean a different side to sports and some of the barriers created from sports participation.

A 2014 qualitative study analyzing the positive and negative impact of an urban youth sport organization used interviews to collect information from 23 program participants of both genders. The findings provided further confirmation that urban sports youth programs work. "Helps kids stay on track. A number of participants discussed how being involved in TDP was a positive experience that kept them and other kids off the street and helped them stay on track personally and academically" (Bean, Whitley, & Gould, 2014, p. 5). Participants stated the remained out of trouble, found the program inclusive and were able to stay on track with academic and personal goals. At-risk youth often have trouble maintaining good grades in school and staying motivated to pursue a rewarding career. The study also offers a solution to possibly improving these kinds of programs. Interviews, surveys, they are excellent tools for information collection and lead to proper assessment of these programs to ensure program participants receive everything they need to continue receiving positive results from participation.
At-risk youth unfortunately sometimes fall prey to outside influences. A 2012 study discusses the reduction in serious crimes due to at-risk youth participation in sports programs. "Results indicate that schools with higher proportions of sports participants report significantly fewer serious crimes (i.e., violent crimes) and suspensions occurring on school grounds" (Veliz & Shakib, 2012, p. 558). These kinds of studies further prove the benefits of sports programs not just in regards to improved academic and personal lives, but at preventing serious criminal behavior. However, the study failed to see a difference in minor crimes lending to the notion that sports programs cannot offer complete prevention and deterrence.

Social Cognitive Theory

Social cognitive theory provides a deeper understanding of the various constructs of physical activity behavior in youth (Ramirez, Kulinna, & Cothran, 2012). The Health Belief Model aims to examine environmental influences with regards to the choices youth make stay physically active or avowing physical activity. Social cognitive theory aims to explore the intrinsic motivation. As the 2012 article discusses, certain constructs may point to why sports programs have such positive influence on youth, especially at-risk youth. These constructs are outcome expectations, barriers, social support, goals, and self-efficacy. If youth witness positive outcomes from participating in junior golf programs, and they are able to meet their goals and gain social support for their successes and improvements, they will feel increase motivation to continue.

Although exploration of social cognitive theory will lead to further analysis of the motivations behind youth in sports programs, there needs to be something to measure these constructs. A 2015 article aimed to use a CSLCS or Children's Sport Locus of Control Scale to measure chance and environment in the external control dimension (Tsai & Hsieh, 2015). They aimed to see the viability of the scale in relation to measuring children's sport locus of control. Their findings provide suggestions for development of other scales and usability of CSLCS.

Understanding motivations does not just come from understanding and measuring constructs. Some people benefit more from sports participation than others. A 2013 study stated individuals with a high achievement and high affiliation motivation benefited more from sports environments than those rating low in these areas (Schuler & Brandstatter, 2013). Some people are naturally inclined to play sports where others are not. Team sports, social interaction, these factor in the motivations of an individual and may explain why sports programs may not be a benefit for all.

Motivations can also be determined by prosocial behavior and positive or negative attitudes. A 2014 study aimed to identify these motivations and their attached outcomes in relation to Olympic education programs. "Earlier researchers have established a relationship between moral values and positive attitudes toward prosocial behavior in sport, and negative attitudes toward antisocial behavior in sport" (Sukys & Majauskien, 2014, p. 819). While the study aimed to understand Olympic values, it failed to examine personal values, leaving a gap in information.

People often identify sports with masculinity, and positive outcomes. While youth sports programs help at-risk youth by increasing their confidence, there are still many perceived barriers in place that prevent youth from fully engaging in physical activity. The Health Belief Model allows understanding of the potential barriers and connect environment with motivation. Social cognitive theory helps describe intrinsic motivations with articles covering what kinds of people benefit the most from sports programs and…