LEARNING Serial Learning

Serial learning is a process in which the learner is exposed to series of stimuli; later the learner is asked to recall his memory in the same sequence in which stimuli have been exposed to him (Jensen, 1965). Examples of serial learning include baking a cake, visiting friend's home and driving a car.

Primacy and Recency Effect

According to Mcleod (2008) serial position effect means when people are exposed to series of stimuli; either they recall most of the recent ones (recency effect) or first few stimuli (primacy effect) most likely. The items in the middle are mostly hard for people to recall.

Primacy effect

Series of prizes are mentioned for playing a game. We mostly remember the first few prizes giving the most importance to the first few prizes.

Recency effect

Being close to a friend for years and then recently you have a fight with her; will make you change your opinion about her because of the recent fight. This is the recency effect bias.

Free Recall, Cued Recall, and Recognition Memory

Similarity

Learners are exposed to several stimuli. Later on the learners are asked to recall the items

Dissimilarity

In free recall learners are allowed to recall in any sequence. Whereas in cued recall, learners are given hints to recall the stimuli. Selective retention is done through the process of recognition memory.

Examples

Free Recall -- when an accident happens news reporter asks witness to know what happened. The witness recalls freely and describes the incident.

Cued Recall -- when the accident is recalled by the eye witness; the reporters asks him about criminal's identification (how he looks, what he was wearing) which the eye witness might not able to recall if he is not given hints.

Recognition Memory -- once the suspects of the accidents are captured by the police; eye witness is asked to recognize the criminals.

SECTION FOUR

Encoding and Retrieval of Information from Memory

Encoding is a process of observing and converting the information into a form which is stored in short- and long-term memory of human memory (Cherry, 2012). Retrieval is the process in which the human brain brings back the information from his mind's storage of memory.

Variable of encoding of information

Intention to learn

Utilization of imagery

Meaningfulness

Example

While preparing for my exams; how hardly I memorize the lectures depends on my intention to learn.

Variable of retrieval of information

Association

Use of mnemonic devices

Meaningfulness

Lack of interference

Example

Things I like the most and closer to me; I place them in the top shelf of my cupboard having special association with them. Whenever I need anything closer to me; I always look for it in my top shelf.

Learning without Any Real Awareness or Intention to Learn

Learning can occur without real awareness or intention to learn. It is because of unconscious processing of our brains. Such kind of learning is known as the adaptive unconsciousness and learning by osmosis.

Examples

I learnt French without knowing that I am learning this language. I learnt because people around me speak this language.

Sometimes a song plays in my mind not because it's my favorite song. It is because that I heard the song in some shop or TV channel.

Mnemonic Used in Learning Material

A learning technique which is used to encourage information retention is known as Mnemonic (Cherry, 2012). In this technique, musical nodes and memory tools are used for learning material. For example;

When I was a kid while solving algorithms problems I use to remember a phrase (some people have curly brown hair through proper brushing). This phrase helps me to remember all three formulas of algorithms related to Cos, Sin, Tan.

SECTION FIVE

Forgetting an Intentional or Unintentional Act

According to Verney (1988) forgetting can be both intentional act and unintentional act. Some memories are intentionally forgotten by humans; such memories are known as suppressing memories. Memories which are forgotten unintentionally are known as repressing memories. For some people it is not easy to forget the memory and for some people it is easy to forget memories

Examples

The memory of intentionally forgetting the fight with a best friend

Forgetting someone's name is unintentional act

Forgetting the lyrics of a song after listening to it numerous times is an unintentional act

Recovering Repressed Memories

Repressed memories can be recovered (Cherry, 2012) in the form of flashbacks or also through some external stimuli (medications or therapies). Either way these memories do not come in right sequence. These memories in form of flashbacks can be easily manipulated and can be false memories. These memories in form of flashbacks can be easily manipulated and can be false memories that' why...

Essentially all the emotions can produce this result only if they are experienced in intense proportions. Emotions such as anger, agony, anxiety and joy are the most likely candidates for the part of remembrance. For example, I remember I was planning to visit a friend at the incident to 9/11. The incident became a historical event and memories related to that event are still in my mind.
SECTION SIX

Memory

A set of diverse cognitive capacities which retain and re-enact information and past experiences is known as 'Memory'. Memory is of two types which are known as Short-term and Long-term. Whether short-term or long-term, internal and external factors affect the human memory in ways that can be diverse in their own intensity. The factors affecting the memory can be both internal and external.

Internal and External Factors

Internal factors that contribute their role in affecting memory are age, aptitude, attitude, behavior, neurological factors cognitive style, hormonal imbalance of a person. According to Spada (1993) neurological factors such as tumors and abscesses in memory domain of the brain cause memory dysfunction and may cause permanent diminishing of memory. Hormones such as serotonin are responsible for memory function; any imbalance in it can cause damage to the memory function.

External factors which affect memory are environmental factors, contexts of learning and teaching, input, interaction and. Physical and social activities also affect the memory.

Example

I observe that when I pass an exam with a good grade, I become positively motivated. In the next exam of that particular subject I usually study with motivation and my memory recalling power increases considerably.

Emotions and Memory

Any event or occasion that involves extreme emotions on the person's part is likely to become a permanent part of that person's memory. According to Hitti (2005), a trauma can cause a person considerable damage in his personality. This is because the trauma has imprinted itself into the memory of that person.

Example

I passed my intermediate exams scoring above average marks. Though my expectations were high, I got even higher result which involved emotions of delight, pleasure and joy. Thus it is stored in my memory even when several years have passed after that day.

SECTION SEVEN

Age and Memory

Memory loss can occur with the aging process. Following are the reasons of decline in memory with age:

Human brain has a region that is responsible for the formation of memory and its retrieval. This region is called 'hippocampus'. As the human body ages, so does the hippocampus region which suffers deterioration due to aging.

According to Cherry (2012) with the aging process the growth factors of the human body also start to age. As the growth hormones age, the memory abilities of the person declines.

In old age, a decrease in the blood flow to the brain can stimulate changes in the cognitive skills. The change in cognitive skills can cause impairing of memory in old age.

The absorption of nutrients which cause brain enhancement decreases in efficiency with old age. Thus diminishing the memory abilities.

Example

My father has reached to mid 60s and with his advancing age we have observed a significant loss in memory. Most of the times he tends to forget what he has done the day before.

Gender Differences in Learning and Memory

Four classes of tasks related to memory have been reported for which the genders show different learning and memory patterns. These classes are:

Spatial memory

Emotional memory

Autobiographical memory

Verbal memory

In daily life it is observed that female sex exhibit emotional behavior in higher proportions than the male sex. Male sex is inclined towards the logical thinking and tends to remain logical even in extreme duress. These differences exist due to the natural capabilities and tendencies of opposite sexes towards emotions and logical thinking.

Example

During exams, I am anxious and tense while my brother remains calm and conscious. With his calm logic, he is able to cram and learn more than me.

SECTION EIGHT

Learning in pre-natal Stage

In the ignorant eras, where science and technology were obsolete, it was considered a fact that human beings started the learning process after birth. However, now the studies show clearly that learning is a process that is initiated during the prenatal stages of human development. However according to the theory of Dr. Montessori it is now known that the children start their learning process, nine months…