100). Much of the focus of personnel selection using psychological testing was on new troops enlisting in the military during two world wars and the explosive growth of the private sector thereafter (Scroggins et al., 2008). Psychological testing for personnel selection purposes, though, faded into disfavor during the 1960s, but it continues to be used by human resource practitioners today. In this regard, Scroggins and his colleagues advise, "Many HR practitioners, however, have continued to use personality testing with an optimistic and enduring faith in its ability to discriminate between good and poor job candidates" (p. 101).
In cases where cheating is suspected (such as in the case of an teen applicant possibly using a smartphone or consulting crib notes during testing by visiting the restroom), psychologists have a professional responsibility to conform to relevant privacy laws with respect to the results of such tests, including following the decision-making model provided by organizations such as the Canadian Psychological Association's approach which is applied to these issues in Table 1 below.
Table 1
Application of CPA's Decision-Making Model to Personnel Selection Results
Decision Step
Application
Identification of the individuals and groups potentially affected by the decision.
1. Applicant.
2. Potential employers.
3. Testing organization.
Identification of the relevant issues and practices
1. Stakeholders have a reasonable expectation of accuracy in the administration of personnel selection tests.
2. Applicants have a reasonable expectation of privacy in the release of their test results.
Consideration of how personal biases, stresses, or self-interest might influence the development of or choice between courses of action.
Testing authorities may be biased against younger applicants and translate personal cyberphobias into perceptions of cheating.
Development of alternative courses of action.
1. Reveal suspicion of cheating to stakeholders.
2. Conceal suspicion of cheating to stakeholders.
Analysis of short-term, ongoing and long-term risks and benefits of each course of action.
If the suspicion of cheating is revealed, the likelihood of the applicant receiving a job offer is seriously diminished; conversely, if the results are concealed and applicant secures employment, it may be through fraudulent methods.
Choice of course of action after conscientious application of existing principles, values and standards.
The ethical issues in this case require the testing authority to reveal the suspicion of cheating.
Action, with a commitment to assume responsibility for the consequences of the action.
Reveal the suspected cheating and recommend an alternative testing regimen to confirm or refute the initial testing results.
Evaluation of the results of the action.
This step would dictate the steps that would follow.
Assumption of responsibility for consequences of the action.
If subsequent tests confirmed cheating, the action is substantiated. If not, the suspicions of cheating may have been based on personal biases.
Appropriate action, as warranted and feasible, to prevent future occurrences of the dilemma.
Prevent all testing subjects from leaving the testing area during the administration of the test and to leave all handheld mobile devices outside the testing area.
In addition, professional psychologists must conform to the ethic guidelines and codes of conduct in their respective states, as well as in national organizations such as the American Psychology Association (APA). According to the APA, "Membership in the APA commits members and student affiliates to comply with the standards of the APA Ethics Code and to the rules and procedures used to enforce them. Lack of awareness or misunderstanding of an Ethical Standard is not itself a defense to a charge of unethical conduct" (Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct, 2012, para. 2).
Rules concerning sexual intimacy with a client/former client
As noted above, dual relationships threaten the integrity of the therapeutic process and sexual relations with clients are violative of most professional standards of conduct. In fact, prohibitions against dual relationships and sexual intimacy with clients have been part of professional codes of conduct for therapists for more than a half century (Coombs, 2005). In this regard, Moleski and Kiselica (2005) report that, "Ethical decision making is an ongoing process with no easy answers. In order to promote the well-being of clients, counselors must constantly balance their own values and life experiences with professional codes of ethics as they make choices about how to help their clients effectively" (p. 4). Consequently, clinicians who find themselves becoming personally involved with a client should therefore refer the individual to another practitioner to avoid any appearance of an improper dual relationship between client and therapist (Coombs, 2005).
Personal psychotherapy as a requirement of a graduate training...
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