Part I: Best Practices
Learning disabilities, or specific learning disabilities, is a fairly well defined category that refers to impairments in functioning, typically related to language, perception, memory, or mathematical processing. The classification includes a number of conditions including dyslexia, developmental aphasia, and brain dysfunctions but does not include intellectual disabilities or emotional disturbances (Kavale, Spaulding & Beam, 2009). Moreover, learning disabilities manifest regardless of access to opportunity and other socioeconomic or environmental factors (Learning Disabilities Association of America, 2018). Learning disabilities also need to be distinguished from intellectual disabilities. Formerly known as mental retardation, intellectual disabilities refer to low general functioning including low IQ scores and problems with adaptive behavior (Kavale, Spaulding & Beam, 2009). Therefore, intellectual disabilities are typically concurrent with impaired social functioning and other global factors.

Specific learning disabilities, on the other hand, usually manifest in specific ways. Each person will have different types of specific learning disabilities. For example, a person who is dyslexic might have no trouble with spoken language or mathematics. Some people with specific learning disabilities experience dysfunction in fine or gross motor skills or with working memory (Learning Disabilities Association of America, 2018). The prevalence of specific learning disabilities in the American population is around 8-10% (Learning Disabilities Association of America, 2018), which is far greater than the prevalence of intellectual disability (Tasse, 2016). Intellectual disability is generally better classified as a developmental disorder than as a cognitive disability that impacts a particular realm or type of formal processing (Tasse, 2016). Thus, intellectual disabilities are more generalized overall than learning disabilities, with clear implications for instructional practice and design.

There are no global characteristics associated with specific learning disabilities, given their tremendous diversity and scope. As such, specific learning disabilities can be more difficult to initially recognize in some children, or to offer evidence-based practice options, especially versus intellectual disabilities. For example, the “heterogeneous clusters of disorders” defining specific learning disabilities can occasionally blur the line between these and intellectual disability, though, challenging special education leaders to provide individualized attention and intervention plans (Kavale, Spaulding & Beam, 2009, p. 45). Special education can respond to both intellectual and learning disabilities through an assessment of empirical evidence informing best practices.

The legal and medical definitions of intellectual disabilities and learning disabilities have also been converging more in recent years, permitting more consistent special education practices. For example, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the American Psychological Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM) both offer definitions that encourage adaptations or modifications to the school environment, pedagogy, and curricula to help maximize the potential of all students with special needs. Common Core state standards also help guide teachers and special education leaders towards more cogent instructional design.

Given the preference for integrated classrooms and collaborative teaching models as part of a least restrictive learning environment ideal, special education aims to modify and accommodate rather than segregate students with intellectual or learning disabilities when possible. Of course, each student does need to be evaluated, assessed, and diagnosed differently with some requiring specialized instruction that cannot be given in a general education setting. Effective teacher use of evidence-based instructional strategies, or collaborative teaching with special education instructors can simplify pedagogical practices in an integrated classroom. Specific instructional techniques teachers use in the classroom, including “cognitive strategy instruction, differentiated instruction, and opportunities for independent application” have proven helpful but “were reported infrequently across the published observational research,” (McKenna, Shin & Ciullo, 2015, p. 205). Possibly due to the heterogeneous nature of specific learning disabilities, the infrequent or inconsistent use of specific strategies makes it harder to ascertain which methods of instruction or content modifications work best on which populations. More research on specific populations within the learning disabilities construct would help highlight future best practices.

For students who have been diagnosed with intellectual or specific...…education teachers immersed in diverse special education programs, as well as regular education teachers, need to receive on-going training to effectively meet these students’ educational needs. The training can be task specific, or it can include regular professional development courses that alert instructors about emerging research or new technologies.

Teachers also need to remain open to altering the actual content of a lesson plan, even within an inclusive classroom. It is possible to alter content while still teaching for the specific content standard. When altering content, teachers can address fundamental issues such as the level of abstraction in a lesson or the complexity of a lesson or task. This is especially evident in mathematics and language composition classes. Teachers can also rely on alternative methods of teaching the same content, such as multimedia aids. As Wakeman, Karvonen & Ahumada (2013) also point out, students with special needs often benefit from a variety of approaches that can be adapted to suit students with specific learning disabilities. The use of technology is becoming increasingly common in inclusive classrooms (Wakeman, Karvonen & Ahumada, 2013). Using established techniques like phonics, specialized reading comprehension interventions, individualized instruction, peer instruction, and vocabulary-building exercises can be helpful for students with a wide range of disabilities (McKenna, Shin & Ciullo, 2015). In some cases, teachers need to change the ways they assess student comprehension or mastery of the unit content.

The effectiveness of these various special education programs and regular education inclusionary opportunities need to be regularly evaluated for their effectiveness at helping create learning opportunities for all students. Program evaluation can take place at least once per school year, with both qualitative and quantitative measures used to assess student, parent, and teacher perceptions of the effectiveness of the instructional strategies. As all educators participate fully in the processes and goals of special education, it becomes crucial that training and evaluation procedures become more consistent and frequent throughout the school year.…