Education as Cultural Transmission
School culture
Education and societal inequality
Synthesis and Analysis
Drawing Conclusions
Education as cultural transmission
Although the precise purpose of education remains in debate, what is clear is that the life lessons needed by young people living in the Amazon rainforests are far different from those needed by young learners in developed nations, so it is reasonable to posit that education can be viewed as a means of cultural transmission that is intended to impart what is regarded as important and valuable to future generations (Harris & Graves, 2010). Young learners in the primitive regions of the Amazon, for instance, would need to know how to hunt and fish for the right types of game and which plants were edible and which should be avoided. These young people would have little or no need (which is not to say desire) for knowing how to design a Web site or perform higher mathematics, and learning this information would detract from their ability to survive in the wilderness. Likewise, learning how to survive in the rainforest may be interesting for many young people in the West, but these survival skills would not significantly enhance their competitiveness in the 21st century workplace. In this regard, Hanley (2006) points out that, "Education to some is mis-education to others" (2006, p. 52).
Consequently, education can be readily viewed as a framework for cultural transmission and many authorities agree with this perspective. For example, according to Hanley (2006), "As with all institutions and human practices the meaning of education depends on the context and perspective. . . . However, from every perspective education is a cultural project" (emphasis added) (p. 53). Even in the most primitive settings, though, education as cultural transmission is not static but is rather a dynamic process wherein culture is constantly being constructed and reconstructed according to the prevailing values and norms that exist within a society as well as what is regarded as important and unimportant (Hanley, 2006). For instance, Hanley notes that, "What passes between the society, the institutions of education, groups and individuals is cultural knowledge. The valuation applied to certain knowledge and not to others is cultural. As educators and students teach and learn they are involved in constructing culture" (2006, p. 53). In modern educational settings, constructing culture is a reciprocal process, but school culture begins at the top with the principal and extends throughout the school, and these issues are discussed further below.
School culture
Although every school setting is unique in some way, there is axiomatic for all schools that if students are not learning they way they are being taught, they need to be taught the way they will learn. Unfortunately, far too many schools must place a higher priority on classroom management practices to provide a safe learning environment instead of inculcating the importance of developing the critical thinking skills that young people need to compete in the 21st century workplace and become informed members of society. Moreover, poor school cultures are deeply rooted and can be extremely challenging to change irrespective of the need. In this regard, Ohlson (2009) advises that, "School culture refers to the deep patterns of values and beliefs and traditions that have been formed over the course of the school's history and which are understood by members of the school community" (p. 103).
Notwithstanding its intractability to change, the growing body of evidence to date confirms that there is a direct association between a school culture and academic outcomes, and schools that that value effective teacher and effective leadership experience superior outcomes compared to their counterparts (Goldring, 2009). Some indications of a school culture that requires changing include disciplinary practices that employ excessive suspensions and other measures that detract from rather than contributing to the learning experience (Ohlson, 2009). In many cases, the targets of these disciplinary measures are minority and lower socioeconomic students who are already at higher risk of suboptimal academic outcomes and dropping out of school altogether (Ohlson, 2009).
There are some steps that schools can take to change their culture to improve academic outcomes, though, including the following:
Survey teachers and administrative staff to identify prevailing views concerning the existing school culture and be prepared to act on the feedback;
Collaborate with all stakeholders to develop a shared vision for the school's culture; and,
Identify salient traditions that are worth saving and incorporating into the new school culture (Goldring, 2009).
As noted above, however, school culture develops over time and educators will likely encounter significant resistance to change, even for the better, unless supporting rationale...
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