Drug Use and Addiction Today, tens of millions of Americans routinely use some type of illicit drugs, and the search for ways to help those who become addicted to substances continues in earnest. In the interim, growing numbers of law enforcement organizations have taken assertive steps to help individuals who have developed an addiction to drugs receive the interventions they need to overcome these potentially life-threatening behaviors. The purpose of this paper is to provide a review of the relevant literature concerning drug use and addiction in the context of deviant behaviors, the subculture that exists among drug users and addicts, and their potential for participation in illegal activities. In addition, a discussion why an understanding of this subculture is important for those involved in law enforcement and how understanding can facilitate prevention, recovery, community service, and law enforcement is followed by a summary of the research and key findings concerning these issues in the conclusion.

Review and Discussion

Overview of Drug Use and Addiction

In modern American society, the use of a wide range of drugs is regarded as acceptable behavior that does not deviate from the norm. For instance, people drink alcoholic beverages and coffee which contains caffeine, smoke cigarettes which contain nicotine and a majority of Americans take some type of over-the-counter drugs such as aspirin without violating any social norms (except for tobacco use which is being increasingly restricted and viewed as unacceptable behavior to some extent). While these types of behaviors are not considered deviant, the line is crossed when people continue to use illicit drugs or misuse prescription drugs even when such behaviors cause them enormous problems in life, including the loss of family, employment and involvement with the criminal justice system..

It is important to note, however, that humans have been using mind-altering substances since time immemorial, so views about deviant behavior are temporally and culturally specific. Indeed, this process is evinced by changing social views about the cannabis use, with Mexico and Canada as well as a majority of states having legalized medical marijuana in recent years, and growing numbers are legalizing it for recreational use as well. This situation is in very sharp contrast to just a few years ago when the possession of even small amounts of marijuana carried stiff fines and even incarceration. It is also important to note that the harm reduction model being used by many countries which places a higher priority on help those who have become addicted to drugs achieve recovery rather than penalizing them criminally is a fairly recent trend as well (Pereira & Scott, 2017). Notwithstanding these considerations and for the purposes of the discussion that follows below, drug use and drug addiction will be operationalized as involving illicit substances...

In this regard, Miller (2009) emphasizes that, “Most scientists now consider drug addiction a biomedical rather than a psychological condition, or a failure of will, as many laypersons still believe” (p. 14). The rationale in support of the harm reduction model is therefore based on the same thinking that applies to diseases such as diabetes or cancer wherein sufferers are not treated as criminals but are rather provided with the interventions they need to survive and restore them to complete health to the maximum extent possible.
The American Psychiatric Association and the American Medical Association as well numerous other health care organizations currently define drug addiction as “a brain disease that causes an uncontrollable, compulsive drug craving, seeking, and use even in the face of negative health and social consequences” (Miller, 2009, p. 14). This definition further underscores the baffling nature of drug addiction for people who have never suffered from the disorder, and this point is consistently stressed by twelve-step organizations such as Alcoholics and Narcotics Anonymous.

In addition, it is also important to differentiate drug addiction with drug dependence, with the former referring to the potential for so-called “drug sickness” or the psychological and physical withdrawal symptoms that take place in the event that the use of the drug is discontinued (Miller, 2009). In those cases where drug sickness is not a potential eventuality and the primary adverse reaction to the discontinued use of the drug is psychological, the condition is considered drug addiction. As Miller notes, “Certain drugs, such as heroin and alcohol, create physical dependence, while other drugs, such as cocaine, produce very few symptoms of physical dependence and are therefore referred to as primarily creating psychological dependence” (2009, p. 14).

Some additional definitional clarity is available from the DSM-5 criteria for substance abuse which also takes into account the fact that some individuals appear to be psychologically predisposed to developing drug addictions (Hartney, 2018). Likewise, the DSM-5 criteria for substance use disorders includes the tendency for afflicted individuals to continue their drug use despite the problems that they experience as a result of these behaviors (Hartney, 2018).

The substance use disorders covered by the DSM-5 cover a wide range of problems that tend to result from continued substance use, including the following:

· Taking the substance…