Because of the private nature of the tradition and because the methods can range so greatly, it is difficult to adequately assess the details of female genital cutting in Africa.
The history of the tradition goes back thousands of years and is often (incorrectly) associated with religious dictates (von der Osten-Sacken & Uwer, 2007). It has long been associated with Islam, though there has been active opposition from many Islamic groups to prove otherwise; the procedure is not mentioned or sanctioned by the Quran (Abdelmagied, Salah, ElTahir, NurEldin, & Shareef, 2005; Abusharaf, 2001). However, it is mentioned in the Hadith, the oral tradition of Muhammad used by the Sunnah Muslim traditions; even here it does not advise for or against the procedure (von der Osten-Sacken & Uwer, 2007).
Still, many groups use religion as a way to explain female genital cutting. Dellenborg (2004) reports that clitoridectomy has been spreading as part of female cultural identity under Islam since the mid-twentieth century. Additionally, illiteracy and lack of access to information has led to the belief by many Muslims that some form of female genital cutting is prescribed for religious purity (von der Osten-Sacken & Uwer, 2007).
Whether a religion dictates the procedure or not, female genital cutting plays an extremely important cultural and social role in many areas. One common association with the procedure is that the removal of the clitoris and other genitalia is a symbol of chastity and purity (von der Osten-Sacken & Uwer, 2007). Theoretically, the removal of the external genitalia makes sexual contact less enjoyable so that a girl is less likely to be tempted by premarital sex. The most severe genital cutting and infibulation also proves a girl's virginity since she has been sewn shut (Morris, 2006). The implication of both of these arguments is that women participate in genital cutting to prove to men that they are virginal and chaste. This is partially true; chastity is, as in many cultures, valued in Muslim societies. However, Dellenborg (2004) and Abusharaf (2001) offer alternative views on the cultural need for genital cutting.
In sharp contrast to the assumption that African women are helplessly at the whim of male dominated society, Abusharaf (2001) argues that some female genital cutting empowers women. He points to the tradition of women carrying out the ritual, explaining that it is an important rite of passage rather than a forced patriarchal custom (Abusharaf, 2001). Along the same lines, Dellenborg (2004) points to the women of Jola society in Senegal, Gambia. These women use clitoridectomy as a rite, initiating women into a female secret society that actually established power for them within their social circle. Dellenborg (2004) explains Western conceptions of femininity and sexuality have difficulty understanding this choice, as our ideas of femininity and sexuality are so drastically different. Yet, male circumcision is common in most westernized nations and it, too, reduces sexual pleasure in efforts to conform to social norms. The Jola have told researchers that clitoridectomy does not relate to their sexuality in a negative way and in fact enriches their lives as women (Dellenborg, 2004). Other rituals, like smoke-bathing and deplation, use heat and pain for purification and do not meet with such adamant arguments (Boddy, 2006).
One account from Sudan explains that the cultural and spiritual importance of the purification ritual maintains the important of the community unit (Boddy, 2006). The woman explains that the Arabic word for womb (rihm) is not usually used; instead, the idiom baytal-wilada, meaning house of childbirth, is used. The implication is that the woman's body, like the high-walled domestic structure used for childbirth, is meant to enclose and protect the value of their kin and family (Boddy, 2006). In this way, the suturing or sewing of the female genitalia is symbolic of the protection of family and family values.
Perhaps the most problematic argument against female genital cutting is the physical issues. Women are physically at risk from the procedure, as are their infants during birth and pregnancy ("Female genital mutilation," 2006). Historically, primitive methods incorporated in the procedures have caused infection and death in many girls. Hemorrhaging from a poorly done surgery is still a major risk where female genital cutting is performed by untrained individuals. Because genital cutting can cause scar tissue around the vaginal opening, giving birth is often problematic for women who have had extensive cutting performed on them. This puts infants at risk if labors are longer and puts both mother and child at risk in cases where...
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