The stability is evident in the statistics as well. Between 1880 and 1914, the golden age of the gold standard, inflation averaged 0.1%. Between 1946-2003, even with Bretton Woods, inflation average 4.1% (Bardo, n.d.). Short-term price changes, however, could be highly unstable. This is a consequence of the fact that the gold standard ignores fundamental economic principles. Any system where the value of a good is established by artificial means is subject to such shocks. Another drawback to the gold standard is that it gives governments very little discretion over monetary policy. Another drawback is the cost of producing gold. The gold standard relies on having physical gold reserves. Thus, gold must be produced, and for that there is a cost (Ibid).
With the decline of Bretton Woods, the gold standard died. It was replaced by the modern foreign exchange system. At the core of this system are fiat currencies. Whereas currencies were once backed by the value of that nation's gold, dollar or pound reserves, now they were backed only by the implied power of the nation's economy. While this makes intuitive sense, it also means that no unit of currency has any underlying value. This is why today we have individual nations selecting a range of monetary policy regimes. The world's strongest economies have free-floating currencies. Others, such as China maintain a hybrid pegged float system, only slightly more flexible than that offered under Bretton Woods. Other countries maintain a hard peg, which in many cases leads to black market trading of their currencies.
The world's foreign exchange markets allow for trading, mainly in the free-floating currencies. Currencies are exchanged for a variety of reasons. International trade is one reason. In particular, banks need to access foreign exchange markets to meet the currency needs of their customers. Banks and other financial institutions also trade on their own accounts, and as a consequence are the world's most active participants in...
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A number of economists suggest that markets are efficient, but this efficiency is merely assumed. In this regard, Batten points out that, "There is no actual proof. It is virtually impossible to test for market efficiency since the 'correct' prices cannot be observed. To get over this hurdle, most tests examine the ability of information-based trading strategies to make above-normal returns. But the results of such tests do not
risk that Apple Inc. faces with respect to its international economic exposure. Apple designs its products in the United States, manufactures them in China and then sells them all over the world. In order to analyze this exposure, a number of steps will be undertaken. The first step will be to provide an overview of the business, what its foreign exchange exposure is, and how the company manages that
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" As will be shown below, the bottled water market is increasingly competitive and consumers have a dazzling array of choices available to them. It is clear that Voss has taken this into account when developing its sophisticated packaging, some samples of which are shown in Figure ____ below. Figure ____. Representative Sampling of Voss Packaging Techniques. Source: noisedfisk.com/illustrations/vosswater.jpg, www.uncrate.com/men/images/voss-water.jpg, http://www.urbanfare.com/featuredfare/images/weeklyad/voss_water.jpg In fact, one new admirer of the Voss brand unashamedly proclaimed that even
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