Peculiar Ethics of Public Leadership: Pragmatism as a Framework for Action in Public Service The objective of this study is to examine pragmatism as a framework for action in public services. Towards this end, this work will conduct an extensive review of literature in this area of study.

According to the work of Keith F. Snider entitled "Rethinking Public Administration's Roots in Pragmatism: The Case of Charles A. Beard" reports that pragmatism because very prominent "around the turn of the 20th century…through the ideas of well-known writers such as William James and John Dewey." (2008) Comaeger (1950) stated that pragmatism is "almost the official philosophy of America." (Stever, 2008) The work of Shields (nd) explains that classical pragmatism "is attractive because it has both depth and complexity." Shields states that these characteristics "have made it difficult to summarize and easy to misinterpret." (nd) Classical pragmatism has been held by scholars in psychiatry to be a method that can be used in the reconciliation of conflict in the field of psychiatry. Classical pragmatism can be best understood as explained by David H. Brendel (2006) who uses "four Ps" which is a framework for classical pragmatism. The four Ps are stated by Brendel as follows: (1) practical; (2) pluralistic; (3) participatory; and (4) provisional. (Shields, nd) Shields reports that the practical, experiential orientation of classical pragmatism is such that "incorporates the doing and making of practitioners, unlike other philosophical approaches." (Shields, nd) Those who founded classical pragmatism are reported to have been "men and women of action who united practice and theory." (Shields, nd) Pragmatism's experimentalism is stated by Shields to be "part of a larger theory and process of inquiry." (nd) It is the belief of classical pragmatists that "purposeful human inquiry is both provisional and grounded in a problematic situation. The applicability of the 'problematic situation' to public administration should be immediately apparent." (Shields, nd)...

Habits are solutions-in-practice to past problematic situations. Habits may no longer work, or a new problem may arise." (Shields, nd) The acknowledgement that things are not working effectively is reported to take into account "the qualitative nature of human experience." (Shields, nd) Shields states that the problematic situation and doubt "are recognized and resolved through the process of inquiry, which involves critical reasoning, empirical investigation, and actions that are assessed in light of practical consequences" which is inclusive of experimental and scientific logic. Shields states that the process of purposeful inquiry is such that "links the problematic situation to an end-in-view -- a flexible, practical goal with meaning in the real world that cannot be separated from a problematic situation or human experience." (nd) In addition, "the pragmatic logic of inquiry is relative to consequences rather than antecedents, in contrast to formal logic, which begins with a premise." (Shields, nd) The experimentalism of pragmatism is such that "uses a forward looking view of science. The goal is not to find eternal principles, but rather to use an ongoing experimental and experiential process to develop plans for action that are evaluated in light of practical consequences." (Shields, nd) Hildebrand (2008) reports that no problem "is ever encountered, evaluated, or resolved in a vacuum." Governmental and administrative institutions are such that are "charged with the creation, implementation and administration of laws and codes that express communities' values" therefore these agencies are in no position and cannot "take as their operational mandate a value-neutral efficiency that eschews cognizance of the value-laden nature of their actions." (Hildebrand, 2008) According to Hildebrand "If the background of democratic life is rooted in community, its complementary foreground is inquiry, the epistemic actions with which communities solve problems and improve conditions." (2008) Classical pragmatism is such that holds that "the search for knowledge is motivated by concrete and situated needs. Classical pragmatism holds that public administration "exists to…