¶ … lessons observed varied depending on the school. In high school, the aims were to learn about the history of art, whereas in younger grades such as elementary and early middle school years, the aim was explorative creativity and self-expression. Common Core Standards addressed: The National Core Art Standards (2015) were addressed including "generate and conceptualize artistic ideas and work," "organize and develop artistic ideas and work," and "refine and complete artistic work."

The instructional strategies used included dialogue, coaching in the use of art supplies and materials in the younger grades, and engaging in discussions about art among the high school students.

The methods of assignments used included creative expression in elementary art classes, as well as written and oral presentations.

Teachers engaged students and fostered critical thinking via asking questions and allowing students to respond.

An educational theory that was put into practice is Gardner's (2011) theory of multiple intelligences, which allows for multiple types of creative and artistic intelligence.

1. Observations of five very different American schools reveals some of the primary challenges with contemporary educational reform. One of the observed schools was a high school comprising grades 9 through 12, located in an affluent neighborhood. Although there are some black and Hispanic students at this school, the majority of the students are white. A second observed school was also a grade 9-12 high school, located in what can be described as a middle class neighborhood comprised mainly of white students as well, with a small minority of black and Hispanic students. Similar demographics were observed at the grade 6-8 middle school in the same neighborhood. The fourth and fifth schools were located in an economically underprivileged neighborhood. One was a K-5 elementary school, and the other was the grades 6-8 middle school. In both these schools, the majority of the students were black and Hispanic, with a small minority of white students. For purposes of consistency, the observations were conducted on the art classes in these schools.

2. Observations reveal the differences between the schools, depending on their demographics. All schools exhibited certain similarities in the way they approached the arts, with the affluent school being better equipped with resources for teaching art history at the high school level than any of the other schools observed. Likewise, the students at the affluent school were exposed to material and concepts that went beyond the National Core Art Standards (2015). Gardner's (2011) theory of multiple intelligences could be found embedded in the methods used by teachers at all the schools, particularly with regards to stimulating the creativity and uninhibited expression of the students. Younger students, such as those located at the elementary school, were given much more leeway than older students when it came to meeting the objectives for completed works of art. None of the schools seemed to have in place a "community of practice" model such as those recommended by Goldstein (2014, p. 265).

3. All schools should be understood within their social, cultural, economic, and political contexts. The high school located in the affluent neighborhood cannot be divorced from its surroundings any more than the elementary and middle schools located in the economically disadvantaged neighborhood. Political elements that impinge on school management and its role in the community are evident when speaking with administrators, who note varying levels of support for their programs, services, and teachers. As Ravitch (2014) notes, "our urban schools are in trouble because of concentrated poverty and racial segregation" (p. 4). This was observed in the schools located in the economically disadvantaged neighborhood.

4. Understanding of communication is one of the cornerstones in educational psychology and the social psychology of education. Moore (2012) stresses the importance of engaging and motivating learning through an understanding of social psychology, with particular importance placed on using verbal, vocal, and metaverbal messages to promote internal and external motivation. This was witnessed in all the classrooms I observed. Similarly, personality theories of psychology are readily applied to the diverse learning environment found in contemporary classrooms like the ones observed. Hall, Lindzey & Campbell (1998) draw the connection between personality theories and learning, referring notably to Rogers and his poignant critique of traditional education, its institutions, and its structures. Rogers had observed the "silent screams of denied feelings" in classrooms and the corridors of schools, which is certainly palpable in all American public schools (cited by Hall, Lindzey & Campbell, 1998, p. 488).

5. Pedagogy manifests as a culmination in teacher learning...

Teachers define learning differently depending on the subject and the age of their students. The "dialogic" method advocated by Friere (2005) can be seen in several of the art classes observed. As a critical tool for intellectual and creative freedom, dialogue promotes hope and motivates learning, whereas its converse, the anti-dialogic method, discourages learning and promotes alienation (Friere, 2005). Goldstein (2014) points out the need to keep teaching "interesting," both for the teacher and for the student (p. 266). Keeping teaching "interesting" requires deft classroom structures that parallel the goals of the lesson and the overall mission of the class. For example, in one middle school lesson observed, the students sat in a large circle; whereas in another, the students sat in rows. Yet another classroom divided itself into small groups of no more than five students seated together at whatever tables were available. When interviewed about their pedagogical experiences, choices, and intents, teachers supported multiple methods depending on the resources of the classroom. In only one of the classrooms did the teacher spend an inordinate amount of time at the board, not paying much attention to the students but instead absorbed in her own lecture. When asked about it later, the teacher replied, "This was a rich lesson and I did not want to leave out anything the students might need to know for the exam."
6. The construction of knowledge is an ongoing process, involving the co-creation of learning (Friere, 2005). In one classroom, a student and teacher engaged in a dialogue that clearly revealed an epistemological process that was student centered, whereas other classrooms were more teacher centered using the "banking" model despised by Friere (2005). Using the principles of cognitive science, Willingham (2009) notes that the human brain is actually designed to maximize its efficiency by "avoiding thinking," even though people are naturally curious (p. 3). In other words, students need to be convinced that learning is to their advantage, or learning needs to be made pleasurable through passionate delivery of knowledge or engaging stimulation of creativity and critical thought. In this sense, teaching can be presented as an "act of persuasion," a phrase used by one of the teachers involved who hoped to reach out to some of the more disenfranchised students in the class who had behavioral problems (Willingham, 2009, p. 208). In many cases, students appeared bored and detached from the lesson and only interested in how their grades were after their assignments were scored.

7. It is impossible to comment on general behavior patterns of students in the classroom given the huge differences between the five schools observed. However, most students do actively participate on some level and teachers use various strategies for classroom management including both positive and negative reinforcement for behavioral issues. Classes that were "dialogic" and which did not depend too much on the use of books or lectures tended to have fewer behavioral problems, as with the one history class observed.

8. The ethnic, economic, and gender ratios varied from class to class. The school in the wealthy neighborhood had predominantly white students in class; the school in the poor neighborhood had predominantly African-American students in class. Gender ratios were about even, but each school had internal consistency regarding economic background of the students. All the teachers observed in the classrooms were white with three out of the five female.

9. All of the schools observed were public schools in urban and suburban neighborhoods. Percentages of students up to grade level varied depending on the institution. Resources available to the teacher in the classroom also varied depending on the school, its grade level, and where it was located. There were no teacher aids witnessed during these classroom observations.

In general, these were democratic learning environments except for the fact that most of the teachers seemed to practice what Friere (2005) had called the "banking" concept of education, in which teachers view their role as depositors of knowledge into the "bank" of the student's mind. The student is not necessarily viewed as a co-creator of knowledge, except when working on liberating art assignments. When teachers engage with their students as a co-creator of knowledge, as in dialogue sessions, the classroom felt more democratic. If I had to do anything differently in each of the classrooms, it would be to empower students by encouraging them to offer input and make critical choices as to the how to steer the lesson in directions more meaningful to them.

References

Friere, P. (2005). Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Online: https://libcom.org/files/FreirePedagogyoftheOppressed.pdf

Hall, C.S., Lindzey, G. & Campbell, J.B. (1998). Theories of Personality.…