. . . The Dome of the Rock is basically a Byzantine building [with] classical columns, topped by arches in alternating black and white marble, the dome, and the gold and semi-precious mosaics that decorate the walls all speak of Byzantine heritage" (p. 119). Some scholars, though, have argued that authentic Islamic architecture essentially ended in 900 C.E., with the sole exception of Egypt, and even in this venue Islamic architectural development all but ceased for a period of four centuries until the middle of the Bahri Mamluk period (Blair & Bloom, 2003). It is important to note, though, that the Mamluk sequence of sultans continued until 1517 and there was ample evidence for a comparable tradition of Islamic architecture in a number of countries besides Egypt (Blair & Bloom, 2003). According to these authorities, "While architecture is as important in Islamic culture as it was in Western Europe or East Asia, visual representation, which plays such an enormous role in the artistic traditions of Europe and Asia, is a relatively minor and limited component of Islamic culture, and sculpture is virtually unknown" (Blair & Bloom, 2003, p. 19). These traditions are also based on scriptural references from the Koran. For example, in Al-Noor Sura, verses 27-8, it is stated that: "O Ye believers, do not enter houses other than yours unless you ask for permission and say the word of peace to the occupants. This is better for you so that you may remember. If you did not find any inside, do not enter until you are permitted to, and if you are told 'Go back', go back; it is better for you for God knows what you do." According to Farmer and Louw (1999), these scriptural references demonstrate the salience of privacy in Islamic architecture, especially in personal residences. For example, Farmer and Louw explain that, "This means that to enter a house one should seek permission, and keep away from the private areas inside the house. This should be realized by providing a right-angled corridor so that the guest may pass through before entering the sitting room, which gives notice to those inside, especially women, to be able to leave without being seen by such a guest" (p. 451). In response to these proscriptions, Islamic architects introduced specific design elements to accommodate the need for two separate entrances. In this regard, Farmer and Louw note that, "At Najd, in the central region of Saudi Arabia, an architectural element called Al-Tarma was introduced. This is an opening through which the occupants can look to identify the visitor; next to it is a corridor which leads to the interior of the house and which is angled at 90 degrees so that entrance will not be direct in a way that may surprise the occupants" (1993, p. 451). These design elements were specifically introduced in order to provide distinct approaches to Islamic homes. Although the scriptural references are silent with respect to precise locations, traditional interpretations have resulted in private entrances being situated at the back of Islamic residences so that honored visitors can be received at the residence's front door (Farmer & Louw, 1993). Therefore, this feature of Islamic architecture has been followed into modern times. For instance, Farmer and Louw add that, "In Islamic architecture, houses have two entrances, one at the back and the other at the front. It is regarded as good to enter the house from the front entrance because doing so from the back entrance will breach the privacy of the occupants, since the private elements are always located near the private back entrance" (p. 451). Despite these similarities, though, there are also some different uses made of these different entrances depending on the Islamic country that is involved. For example, Farmer and Louw point out that, "Some houses dedicate this back entrance to women, while visitors are received at the front one, where the sitting room for men is located. The concept of 'back' is an important addition to the privacy of the house; it is something about which pre-Islamic people did not know, nor Arabs before Islam. It is the main factor which secures privacy for some places inside the house, the places about which strangers should not know" (1993, p. 451). The features that typify and which serve to characterize Islamic architecture, then, are varied but share some commonalities that help to define them in this category. Another feature that is common the Islamic architecture is the need to take the environment in which they buildings are constructed into account in both design and function, and these issues are...
For instance, according to Ahmed-Ullah (1998), "Islamic architecture has always taken on influences of wherever Islam has spread and has [always] been rooted in geometry" (p. 8). This foundation and reliance of geometrical patterns is also a reflection of the environment that is based on an Islamic natural vision of God. In this regard, Tillinghast reports that, "The emphasis on pattern derives from a vision of the nature of God" (2007, p. 37). The natural connection between geometric shapes and patterns used in Islamic architecture also extends to the use of algebra, a very Islamic tradition indeed. As Tillinghast points out,"Every novice etymologist knows that our word algebra derives from Arabic al-jebr, which roughly translates as 'reunification.' One can see how this notion relates to solving an equation; but it also points to one of the essentials of Islamic theology" (2007, p. 37). Likewise, the geometric muqarnas, the stalactite-like decorative architectural elements, are also frequently characterized as the distinctive creation of Islamic architecture (Saliba, 1999). It should be noted, though, that Saliba (1999) also emphasizes that the origins of these design elements remains unclear and no architectural plans have been located to date, but the relationship between Islamic architecture and the natural environment is a recurring theme in Islamic literature. For example, Saliba reports that, "As expounded by the great Andalusian mystic Ibn 'Arabi, whose writing spanned the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the world God created remains a part of God, and so when man sets out to know the nature of the divinity, this means that one part of God - a separated or estranged part - is attempting to know another part" (p. 37). Similarly, there are references to the natural environment and Islamic architecture found in work of the Turkish mystic, Jelaluddin Rumi, whose long poem, the Mesnevi, reflects "the multiplicity of natural forms evidence of God's infinitude" (Tillinghast, 2007, p. 37). Not surprisingly, then, Islamic architects are faced with some profound challenges in promoting excellence in their work on the one hand and avoid extravagant excesses that would detract from the glorification of God on the other, all the while balancing the needs of the buildings' occupants, and these issues are discussed further below.
From approximately 1930 until the 1980s, rectangular and functional spaces were the chief form of architecture around the world in general. The latter part of the 20th century -- the 1980s onward -- saw change once again, however (2008). For the most part, 20th century architecture, however, "focused on machine aesthetics or functionality and failed to incorporate any ornamental accents in the structure" (2008). The designs were, for the
Iconography: In many ways, the iconography left behind at the Dome of the Rock for our evaluation provides only partial insight into the events that inspired it. We are left to interpret this based on the historical knowledge and immediate evidence available to us. According to Rabbat, "Muslims around the world believe it was built to commemorate a decisive event in the Prophet Muhammad's mission, namely his Night Journey from Mecca
This methodology emphasized observable empirical evidence as the way towards discovering and understanding natural laws and true causes. It was the use of this method that was cardinal in the advancement and development of many disciplines, including architecture. Coupled with this was the invention of modern printing by Johannes Gutenberg (1398 -- 1468). His mechanized process of movable type allowed books to be mass produced. This invention laid the
Communication Islamic Countries Freedom in all its forms is a highly contested topic across all areas of politics, not only in countries where freedom has been traditionally repressed, but even in the most democratic of states, such as the United States and the UK. When freedom extends to the press, the contestability of the topic gains an extra dimension. Some critics, for example, advocate freedom of the press only to such
Jewish, Christian Islamic belief? How religions compare ? Talk discussion: Judaism: Creation Patriarchs Prophets Kings the Bible Literature Early Christianity, Islam, and Judaism are three of the most renowned religions in the world and this is reflected by the number of followers supporting each religious ideology and by their background. In spite of the fact that there have been many conflicts between individuals following these three religions, they have a
178). For example, Sakkal reports that, "The measuring system of Ibn Muqlah is based on a circle with a diameter that equals the height of the letter Alef. It controls the correct proportions of the letters by comparing them to the circle, and by diagonal dots written with the calligraphy pen" (1993:9). In his analysis of Ibn Muqla's role in the standardization of the geometrical basis of Arabic writing,
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